# Battery cathode materials: Production route

How one recipe of salt plus lithium makes every cathode type

Source page: https://www.materialinsights.org/chemicals/cathode_materials/routes/

What this tab covers How it is made: the main production routes or, for product families, the main product types and technologies, compared on share of supply, inputs per tonne, plant scale, yield, co-products and unit cost.

All cathodes are made by turning refined metal salts into a precursor and then firing it with a lithium salt. The chemistry, not the process, separates the products. LFP is made from iron phosphate and lithium carbonate, by solid-state or liquid-phase routes. Ternary NMC and NCA start from co-precipitated nickel-cobalt-manganese (or aluminium) hydroxide fired with lithium hydroxide. LCO uses cobalt oxide. LMFP adds manganese to LFP. The choice trades energy density against cost, safety and exposure to nickel and cobalt.

#### Routes compared

| Route | Share of supply | Inputs per tonne | Typical scale | Yield | Co-products | Unit cost |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| **LFP (lithium iron phosphate)** | about 70% of world shipments (3.47 Mt of 4.95 Mt, SNE) in 2025 | about 0.24 t lithium carbonate (4.4% Li by mass), about 0.96 t FePO4, carbon source; calcination power (stoichiometry; indicative) | Chinese plants 50-200 kt/yr; Hunan Yuneng shipped 1.14 Mt in 2025 (SNE) | near-stoichiometric on lithium (indicative) | ammonium sulphate or wastewater from FePO4 precipitation | lithium carbonate is roughly half of cost at 2025 prices (indicative, basis: 0.24 t LCE x about $9,000-10,000/t); industry utilisation only about 50% in 2025, top tier above 70% (SMM) |
| **NMC and NCA (ternary, nickel-rich)** | about 1.15 Mt, about 23% of world shipments (derived from SNE's 4.95 Mt less LFP and minor chemistries); 0.83 Mt in China (GGII), 2025 | NMC811: about 0.48 t Ni, 0.06 t Co, 0.056 t Mn and 0.43 t LiOH.H2O (stoichiometry of LiNi0.8Mn0.1Co0.1O2) | Reshine 177 kt, B&M 116 kt, Ronbay 104 kt shipped in 2025; L&F, EcoPro, Easpring and POSCO Future M 50-80 kt each (SNE) | not published | sodium sulphate from precipitation | metal content dominates: at 2025 prices nickel alone is about $7,000/t of NMC811 (indicative, basis: 0.48 t x about $15,000/t) |
| **LCO (lithium cobalt oxide)** | 0.125 Mt in China, about 2.5% (GGII, 2025) | about 0.6 t Co per t LiCoO2 (stoichiometry) | tens of kt per plant (indicative) | not published | none significant | cobalt-driven; cobalt metal rose from $10.75 to $24.75/lb in 2025 (Cobalt Institute via cobalt tile) |
| **LMFP (lithium manganese iron phosphate) and LRM** | LMFP 30 kt and LRM 4 kt in 2025, up from 8 kt LMFP in 2024 (GGII) | as LFP with manganese sulphate or oxide replacing part of the iron (indicative) | pilot to 50 kt/yr lines (indicative) | not published | as LFP | slightly above LFP (indicative) |

#### How each route works
**LFP (lithium iron phosphate)**

Iron phosphate (FePO4) is precipitated from iron sulphate or iron powder and phosphoric acid, then mixed with lithium carbonate and a carbon source, milled and fired under nitrogen. The carbon coating makes the poorly conducting powder usable. High compaction density (2.5 g/cm3 and above) is now the key performance grade.

Cheap, safe, long life, no nickel or cobalt; lower energy density and poor cold performance.
 SNE Research (Jun 2026); GGII via Tiger Brokers (Feb 2026); SMM (Apr 2025); stoichiometry **NMC and NCA (ternary, nickel-rich)**

Nickel, cobalt and manganese sulphates are co-precipitated with sodium hydroxide and ammonia in reactors to spherical hydroxide precursor. This is fired with lithium hydroxide in oxygen. Grades are named by ratio: NMC523, 622, 811, 9-series; NCA replaces manganese with aluminium. High-nickel grades need washing and coating.

Highest energy density; costly, exposed to nickel and cobalt prices and Indonesian and Congolese supply, lower thermal stability.
 SNE Research (Jun 2026); stoichiometry; nickel price indicative from nickel tile **LCO (lithium cobalt oxide)**

Cobalt tetroxide is fired with lithium carbonate; high-voltage grades are doped and coated. Used almost only in consumer electronics.

Best volumetric energy; most cobalt-intensive and exposed to DRC export quotas.
 GGII via Tiger Brokers (Feb 2026); cobalt tile **LMFP (lithium manganese iron phosphate) and LRM**

Part of the iron in LFP is replaced with manganese to raise voltage to about 4.1 V; often blended with NMC. Lithium-rich manganese (LRM) is a high-capacity layered oxide still in early commercial use.

Cobalt-free and denser than LFP; manganese dissolution and cycle life still being solved.
 GGII via Tiger Brokers (Feb 2026) Unit economics are indicative ranges from the sources named; costs move with feedstock and energy prices, plant size and region.

## Other sections

- [Summary](https://www.materialinsights.org/chemicals/cathode_materials/index.md)
- [Overview](https://www.materialinsights.org/chemicals/cathode_materials/overview/index.md)
- [Correlation](https://www.materialinsights.org/chemicals/cathode_materials/correlation/index.md)
- [Production](https://www.materialinsights.org/chemicals/cathode_materials/production/index.md)
- [Feedstocks](https://www.materialinsights.org/chemicals/cathode_materials/feedstocks/index.md)
- [Cycles](https://www.materialinsights.org/chemicals/cathode_materials/cycles/index.md)
- [Trading](https://www.materialinsights.org/chemicals/cathode_materials/trading/index.md)
- [Movement](https://www.materialinsights.org/chemicals/cathode_materials/movement/index.md)
- [Regulation](https://www.materialinsights.org/chemicals/cathode_materials/regulation/index.md)
- [Characteristics](https://www.materialinsights.org/chemicals/cathode_materials/characteristics/index.md)
- [Emissions](https://www.materialinsights.org/chemicals/cathode_materials/emissions/index.md)
- [Relationships](https://www.materialinsights.org/chemicals/cathode_materials/links/index.md)