# Germanium: Extraction

Why germanium comes from zinc smelters and coal ash

Source page: https://www.materialinsights.org/commodities/germanium/extraction/

What this tab covers How it is mined, drilled or grown, and processed into a tradeable form: the main methods compared, their unit economics, by-products, and the companies that do this work globally and in India.

Germanium occurs in trace amounts in zinc sulphide ores, some lead-zinc-copper ores and certain lignite coals. It is not mined for itself. Zinc smelters capture it in residues, and some producers also recover it from coal ash. The concentrate is chlorinated to germanium tetrachloride, purified, converted to dioxide, then reduced and refined to metal. In the United States, a mine in Alaska ships germanium-bearing zinc concentrate to a refinery in Canada for recovery. Companionality is about 95%.

Germanium is never mined for itself. It is pulled from two waste streams of other industries: residues from zinc smelting and ash from burning certain lignite coals. The intermediate is chlorinated to germanium tetrachloride, purified by distillation, then turned into dioxide and metal. A large share of the market also runs on recycled new scrap from lens and fibre plants. Because supply depends on zinc and coal plants choosing to install recovery circuits, and China does most of the refining, policy in Beijing moves the market more than geology does.

#### Methods compared

| Method | Share of supply | Typical scale | Recovery / efficiency | By-products | Unit cost |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| **By-product of zinc smelting residues** | about 60% of world output (USGS Circular 1365, 2008 data) | Yunnan Chihong Zinc & Germanium produced 56 t of germanium products in 2022 (Reuters 2023) | n/a | zinc is the host; indium, gallium and cadmium can be recovered from the same circuits | n/a |
| **Leaching of lignite coal fly ash** | about 30% of world output (USGS Circular 1365, 2008 data) | Yunnan Lincang Xinyuan capacity 47.6 t/yr germanium ingot and 60 t/yr germanium tetrahydride (Reuters 2023) | n/a | power and heat from the coal | n/a |
| **Recycling of new and old scrap** | not quantified; USGS says data are inadequate for reliable estimates | n/a | EU end-of-life recycling input rate 2% (EU CRM 2023); new scrap is routinely recycled (USGS) | n/a | n/a |

#### How each method works
**By-product of zinc smelting residues**

Germanium in sphalerite concentrates reports to leach residues and fumes at zinc smelters. These are re-leached, germanium is precipitated (for example with tannin) to a concentrate, then chlorinated and distilled. The Clarksville, Tennessee smelter made such a leach concentrate for export until the feed mine was suspended in November 2023 (USGS).

Cheap feed that is already mined; output cannot rise faster than zinc smelting and needs dedicated circuits.
 USGS Circular 1365 (2010); USGS MCS 2026; Reuters factbox via Investing.com (July 2023) **Leaching of lignite coal fly ash**

Some lignites in Yunnan and Inner Mongolia carry high germanium. The coal is burned, the fly ash collected, and germanium leached and chlorinated as above. Yunnan Lincang Xinyuan is the best-known producer on this route.

Gives China a second domestic source; dirty, and confined to a few coal seams.
 USGS Circular 1365 (2010); Reuters factbox (2023) **Recycling of new and old scrap**

Swarf and offcuts from machining infrared optics, waste from fibre preform making, used solar wafers and decommissioned military lenses are dissolved or chlorinated and fed back into refining. The US, Belgium, Germany and Canada run such circuits.

Main non-Chinese supply source; limited by how much scrap factories produce.
 USGS MCS 2026; EU CRM 2023 Unit economics are indicative ranges from the sources named; costs vary widely by deposit, region and year.

#### By-product supply

Companionality is about 95%: germanium comes from zinc residues and coal ash. Its value is tiny next to the zinc or power, so a higher germanium price does not cause more zinc to be mined. New supply needs recovery circuits at existing plants, which take years. China had about 83% of world processing (EU CRM 2023) and controls exports by licence since August 2023, so supply outside China is set by policy more than by price.

#### Share produced as a by-product
 About 95% of primary supply comes as a by-product of zinc and coal (Nassar, Graedel & Harper 2015, approximate).

#### Who does it: global

| Company | Country | Activity | Volume | Year | Source |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| **Yunnan Chihong Zinc & Germanium (Chinalco group)** | China | zinc smelting with germanium recovery; fibre-grade germanium tetrachloride | 56 t germanium products | 2022 | [Reuters factbox via Investing.com (July 2023)](https://investing.com/news/commodities-news/factbox-chinas-major-germanium-and-gallium-producers-3121512) |
| **Yunnan Lincang Xinyuan Germanium Industry** | China | germanium from lignite fly ash; ingot, tetrahydride and solar wafers | 47.6 t/yr germanium ingot capacity | 2023 | [Reuters factbox via Investing.com (July 2023)](https://investing.com/news/commodities-news/factbox-chinas-major-germanium-and-gallium-producers-3121512) |
| **Umicore** not published | Belgium | germanium refining and recycling (Belgium); germanium tetrachloride plant in Quapaw, Oklahoma | not published | 2025 | [USGS MCS 2026 (Belgium supplied 41% of US imports 2021-24); company volume not published](https://www.usgs.gov/centers/national-minerals-information-center/germanium-statistics-and-information) |
| **Teck Resources (Red Dog mine, Alaska; Trail refinery, Canada)** not published | US/Canada | germanium-bearing zinc concentrate refined to dioxide and tetrachloride in Canada | not published | 2025 | [USGS MCS 2026 describes the Alaska-to-Canada flow; Canada supplied 37% of US dioxide imports 2021-24](https://www.usgs.gov/centers/national-minerals-information-center/germanium-statistics-and-information) |
| **5N Plus** not published | Canada/US | germanium wafers for space solar cells at St. George, Utah | not published | 2025 | [USGS MCS 2026 (St. George plant); Argus (2022) on 5N Plus St George operations](https://www.argusmedia.com/zh/news/2331244-rio-tinto-starts-te-production-signs-deal-with-5n-plus) |
| **Russian producers (country total)** operator volumes not published; figure is the country total | Russia | germanium refining | 5 t Ge (country output) | 2024 | [World Mining Data 2026](https://www.world-mining-data.info/) |

#### Who does it: India

India has no reported germanium production or refining and imports its needs for fibre and defence optics; germanium is on India's 2023 critical minerals list. Hindustan Zinc's integrated report for FY2025 reports no germanium recovery.

## Other sections

- [Summary](https://www.materialinsights.org/commodities/germanium/index.md)
- [Overview](https://www.materialinsights.org/commodities/germanium/overview/index.md)
- [Correlation](https://www.materialinsights.org/commodities/germanium/correlation/index.md)
- [Production](https://www.materialinsights.org/commodities/germanium/production/index.md)
- [Stocks](https://www.materialinsights.org/commodities/germanium/stocks/index.md)
- [Cycles](https://www.materialinsights.org/commodities/germanium/cycles/index.md)
- [Trading](https://www.materialinsights.org/commodities/germanium/trading/index.md)
- [Movement](https://www.materialinsights.org/commodities/germanium/movement/index.md)
- [Criticality](https://www.materialinsights.org/commodities/germanium/criticality/index.md)
- [Characteristics](https://www.materialinsights.org/commodities/germanium/characteristics/index.md)
- [Emissions](https://www.materialinsights.org/commodities/germanium/emissions/index.md)
- [Relationships](https://www.materialinsights.org/commodities/germanium/links/index.md)