# Sulfur: Extraction

Why sulfur comes from refineries, not mines

Source page: https://www.materialinsights.org/commodities/sulfur/extraction/

What this tab covers How it is mined, drilled or grown, and processed into a tradeable form: the main methods compared, their unit economics, by-products, and the companies that do this work globally and in India.

Almost all sulfur today is recovered, not mined. Refineries and gas plants strip hydrogen sulfide from sour oil and gas to meet fuel and emissions standards, then convert it to elemental sulfur. Smelters capture sulfur dioxide from roasting sulfide ores and make sulfuric acid directly. Tilton describes Chile's Chuquicamata smelter raising sulfur dioxide capture from zero to 80% over 1980–1999 (pdf p. 101). Sour crude, above 1% sulfur, sells at a discount for this reason (Geman, pdf p. 216). In the United States, refineries are the largest source.

Sulfur is now almost entirely a by-product. About 90% of world supply is recovered rather than mined (Indian Express, 2026). The main routes are recovery from sour natural gas, recovery at oil refineries, and capture of SO2 at metal smelters as sulfuric acid. China also roasts pyrite for acid. Old Frasch mining of native sulfur domes, which once dominated US supply, has ended. Because output depends on gas processing, refinery runs and metal smelting, not on sulfur prices, supply barely responds to price.

#### Methods compared

| Method | Share of supply | Typical scale | Recovery / efficiency | By-products | Unit cost |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| **Sour natural gas processing + Claus recovery** | Largest single route; the Middle East alone holds over 45% of world supply that moves by sea or depends on Gulf exports (Argus, Mar 2026) | Large sour-gas complexes recover millions of tonnes a year; UAE produced 6.3 Mt, Qatar 3.1 Mt and Kazakhstan 4.8 Mt in 2025 (USGS, all forms) | Modern Claus plus tail-gas treatment recovers 99% or more of the sulfur (indicative, basis: industry design standard) | Sulfur is itself the by-product; main products are gas, condensate and NGLs | Effectively zero marginal cost; producers must remove sulfur to sell gas, so they sell at any price above handling and freight |
| **Oil refinery recovery (hydrodesulfurisation + Claus)** | Leading source in the US (refineries first, then gas plants); world share not published | US refineries and gas plants recovered 7.6 Mt in 2025; Louisiana and Texas gave 54% (USGS) | 99% or more with tail-gas units (indicative, basis: industry design standard) | Sulfur is the by-product of fuel production | Compulsory by-product; in gluts producers paid to dispose of it (Tampa accepted shipments at $5/t in 2009, Hydrocarbon Engineering) |
| **Smelter acid from copper, zinc, lead and nickel sulfide smelting** | About 6% of US sulfur output in 2025 (USGS); higher in Japan, Chile and China | Roughly 3 t of acid per t of copper smelted (indicative, basis: industry rule of thumb) | Up to 99% of SO2 captured at modern smelters (Tilton 2003) | Acid is the by-product; main products are copper, zinc, lead, nickel | Negative to low: smelters must dispose of acid, and sell it at a loss when markets are weak (indicative) |
| **Pyrite roasting and mined sulfur** | About 10% of world supply is directly mined (Indian Express, 2026) | Small, local plants | n/a | Iron oxide cinder from pyrite roasting | Higher-cost than recovered sulfur; runs when prices are high (indicative) |

#### How each method works
**Sour natural gas processing + Claus recovery**

Gas with high H2S content is treated with amines; the acid gas goes to a Claus unit and a tail-gas plant. Output is molten sulfur, formed into granules for export. The big sources are Abu Dhabi, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Kazakhstan (Tengiz), Russia (Astrakhan, Orenburg) and western Canada.

Huge, cheap volumes; supply set by gas projects, and concentrated in the Gulf (Hormuz risk).
 USGS MCS 2026; Argus (19 Mar 2026); Indian Express (2026) **Oil refinery recovery (hydrodesulfurisation + Claus)**

Hydrotreaters remove sulfur from diesel, petrol and jet fuel to meet low-sulfur standards, producing H2S that is converted in Claus units. Heavier, sourer crude slates and tighter fuel rules raise output. Large complex refineries such as Reliance's Jamnagar are major producers.

Located near consumers; output grows with refinery upgrades (USGS) and falls if oil demand declines.
 USGS MCS 2026; Hydrocarbon Engineering (Gordon Cope, 2009) **Smelter acid from copper, zinc, lead and nickel sulfide smelting**

Roasting and smelting sulfide concentrates releases SO2, which is cleaned and converted to sulfuric acid in contact plants. Japan, Korea, China, Chile and Poland make large volumes. Capture rates are now high: Chuquicamata went from 0% to 80% SO2 capture over 1980-1999, and the best plants exceed 99% (Tilton 2003).

Supplies leach operations near smelters; volume tied to metal output and smelter maintenance.
 USGS MCS 2026; Tilton (2003), On Borrowed Time? **Pyrite roasting and mined sulfur**

China roasts pyrite (iron sulfide) to make sulfuric acid, and USGS counts its sulfur content in Chinese output. Mining of native sulfur by the Frasch hot-water method or open pit survives only on a small scale.

Provides price-responsive supply at the margin but with more pollution.
 USGS MCS 2026 (China footnote); Indian Express (2026) Unit economics are indicative ranges from the sources named; costs vary widely by deposit, region and year.

#### By-product supply

Sulfur is a by-product of gas processing, oil refining and metal smelting. Producers recover it to meet emissions and fuel rules, not because of its price, so supply barely responds to price. When demand rises faster than gas and refinery output, as with Indonesian nickel and LFP in 2024-26, prices spike; when demand slumps, sulfur piles up in blocks at Canadian and Kazakh sites.

#### Who does it: global

| Company | Country | Activity | Volume | Year | Source |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| **ADNOC (incl. ADNOC Gas)** Company sulfur tonnage not published; UAE country output 6.3 Mt (2025). | UAE | sour gas processing; largest sulfur exporter | not published | 2025 | [USGS MCS 2026 gives UAE output of 6.3 Mt](https://www.adnoc.ae) |
| **Saudi Aramco** Company sulfur tonnage not published; Saudi country output 7.2 Mt (2025). | Saudi Arabia | gas processing and refining | not published | 2025 | [USGS MCS 2026 gives Saudi output of 7.2 Mt](https://www.aramco.com) |
| **QatarEnergy** Company tonnage not published; Qatar output 3.1 Mt (2025). | Qatar | LNG and gas processing; sets a monthly Qatar Sulphur Price | not published | 2025 | [USGS MCS 2026; Argus (Mar 2026) on the Ruwais plant suspension](https://www.argusmedia.com/es/news-and-insights/latest-market-news/2803156-sulphur-s-rally-pre-empts-middle-east-price-spike) |
| **Tengizchevroil** Company tonnage not published. | Kazakhstan | sour oil and gas (Tengiz) | not published | 2025 | [USGS MCS 2026 gives Kazakhstan output of 4.8 Mt](https://www.tengizchevroil.com) |
| **Gazprom** Company tonnage not published. | Russia | sour gas processing (Astrakhan, Orenburg) | not published | 2025 | [USGS MCS 2026 gives Russia output of 7.5 Mt](https://www.gazprom.com) |
| **OCP Group** Purchase tonnage not published. | Morocco | largest buyer: phosphate fertiliser and acid | not published | 2024 | [Comtrade 2024: Morocco took 31.1% of world sulfur import value](https://www.ocpgroup.ma) |
| **Mosaic** Purchase tonnage not published. | US | phosphate producer; main buyer in the Tampa quarterly contract | not published | 2025 | [Argus (Jul 2026) on Tampa contract](https://www.argusmedia.com/en/news-and-insights/latest-market-news/2851577-tampa-3q-liquid-sulphur-price-hits-record-705-lt) |

#### Who does it: India

| Company | Country | Activity | Volume | Year | Source |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| **Reliance Industries (Jamnagar)** Production not published. India exported 356,900 t in Jan-Apr 2026 before an informal export halt. | India | refinery sulfur recovery; India's main sulfur exporter via Bedi port | not published | 2026 | [Argus, India's sulphur export halt (28 Jul 2026)](https://www.argusmedia.com/en/news-and-insights/latest-market-news/2857687-india-s-sulphur-export-halt-to-trim-availability) |
| **Indian Oil Corporation and other state refiners** Company sulfur tonnage not published. | India | refinery sulfur recovery for domestic sale | not published | 2025 | [USGS MCS 2026 (India output 3.7 Mt, all forms)](https://iocl.com) |
| **IFFCO** Purchase volume not published. | India | buyer: phosphoric acid and DAP/NPK | not published | 2026 | [Indian Express via VisionIAS (21 Sep 2026)](https://visionias.in/current-affairs/upsc-daily-news-summary/article/2026-09-21/the-indian-express/economy/as-energy-infra-comes-under-attack-in-russia-west-asia-india-has-a-new-fertiliser-problem-sulphur) |
| **Coromandel International** Purchase volume not published. | India | buyer: phosphoric acid and complex fertilisers | not published | 2026 | [Indian Express via VisionIAS (21 Sep 2026)](https://visionias.in/current-affairs/upsc-daily-news-summary/article/2026-09-21/the-indian-express/economy/as-energy-infra-comes-under-attack-in-russia-west-asia-india-has-a-new-fertiliser-problem-sulphur) |

India produced about 3.7 Mt of sulfur in 2025, all forms (USGS), mainly at refineries such as Jamnagar. It uses 3.8-3.9 Mt a year, of which 2-2.1 Mt goes to fertiliser makers, and 52% was imported in 2024-25 (OneIndia, Sep 2026). Imports were 2.25 Mt in 2025, 84% from the Middle East (Argus). India has only 2.2 Mt of phosphoric acid capacity, meeting half its needs, so it also imports acid and finished DAP.

## Other sections

- [Summary](https://www.materialinsights.org/commodities/sulfur/index.md)
- [Overview](https://www.materialinsights.org/commodities/sulfur/overview/index.md)
- [Correlation](https://www.materialinsights.org/commodities/sulfur/correlation/index.md)
- [Production](https://www.materialinsights.org/commodities/sulfur/production/index.md)
- [Stocks](https://www.materialinsights.org/commodities/sulfur/stocks/index.md)
- [Cycles](https://www.materialinsights.org/commodities/sulfur/cycles/index.md)
- [Trading](https://www.materialinsights.org/commodities/sulfur/trading/index.md)
- [Movement](https://www.materialinsights.org/commodities/sulfur/movement/index.md)
- [Criticality](https://www.materialinsights.org/commodities/sulfur/criticality/index.md)
- [Characteristics](https://www.materialinsights.org/commodities/sulfur/characteristics/index.md)
- [Emissions](https://www.materialinsights.org/commodities/sulfur/emissions/index.md)
- [Relationships](https://www.materialinsights.org/commodities/sulfur/links/index.md)