# Lead-acid batteries: What to track

How fast it is replaced, and how cleanly it is recycled

Source page: https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_lead_acid/tracking/

What this tab covers The attributes worth tracking regularly, with the latest value, the direction of travel and why each matters.

For lead-acid, track how fast it is being replaced and how cleanly it is recycled, rather than its cost curve.

| Category | Attribute | Latest | Trend | Why it matters |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Techno-economic | **LCOS trajectory** | About USD 660/MWh capital-only (calculated from 2021 cost of USD 447/kWh and 675 cycles); no recent benchmark^[2](https://www.pnnl.gov/sites/default/files/media/file/LeadAcid_Methodology.pdf)^[3](https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2022-09/2022%20Grid%20Energy%20Storage%20Technology%20Cost%20and%20Performance%20Assessment.pdf) | → stable | Little cost learning left; lithium-ion keeps getting cheaper, so the gap widens. |
| Techno-economic | **Capacity fade and state of health** | 250-2,000 cycles; about 3-4 years at one cycle per day^[1](https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2025/Nov/IRENA_TEC_Sodium-ion_batteries_2025.pdf)^[3](https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2022-09/2022%20Grid%20Energy%20Storage%20Technology%20Cost%20and%20Performance%20Assessment.pdf) | → stable | Depth of discharge and temperature control decide replacement timing. |
| Supply chain | **Critical mineral cost and geopolitical concentration** | No lead concentration figure in the sources used; the EU's 85% recycled-lead minimum from 2031 shows how far supply can rely on recovered metal^[11](https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2023/1542/2023-07-28/eng/pdf) | → stable | Supply risk is low because most lead is recycled; price affects margins of recyclers. |
| Market | **Ancillary service market saturation** | Mainly backup and capacity roles, not frequency markets^[2](https://www.pnnl.gov/sites/default/files/media/file/LeadAcid_Methodology.pdf) | → stable | Lead-acid is not competitive for fast cycling services. |
| Compliance | **Safety and environmental compliance** | EU lead-acid recycling efficiency 75% by end-2025; NFPA 855 applies to VRLA above about 70 kWh; up to 50% of batteries in LMICs recycled informally^[4](https://www.iea.org/policies/16763-eu-sustainable-batteries-regulation)^[6](https://www.energy-storage.news/nfpa-855-2026-edition-updates-and-what-they-mean-for-energy-storage-projects/)^[9](https://www.unicef.org/press-releases/third-worlds-children-poisoned-lead-new-groundbreaking-analysis-says) | ↗ improving | Tighter recycling rules raise costs for informal operators. |
| Impact | **Lifecycle carbon payback period** | No sourced figure^[4](https://www.iea.org/policies/16763-eu-sustainable-batteries-regulation) | → stable | High recycled content lowers embodied carbon, but short life means frequent replacement. |
| Technology-specific | **Substitution by lithium and sodium batteries** | Sodium-ion starter batteries in development; lithium-ion stationary packs USD 70/kWh (2025)^[5](https://www.eesc.europa.eu/sites/default/files/2026-06/qe-01-26-008-en-n.pdf)^[7](https://about.bnef.com/insights/clean-energy/lithium-ion-battery-pack-prices-fall-to-108-per-kilowatt-hour-despite-rising-metal-prices-bloombergnef/) | ↗ improving | Faster substitution cuts lead exposure and improves backup economics. |
| Technology-specific | **Recycled lead content** | EU minimum 85% from 2031^[11](https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2023/1542/2023-07-28/eng/pdf) | → stable | Indicates how closed the loop is in each market. |

#### Sources

1. [Sodium-ion batteries: Technology brief (includes lead-acid and lithium-ion comparison data)](https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2025/Nov/IRENA_TEC_Sodium-ion_batteries_2025.pdf) IRENA, 2025
2. [Lead-Acid Battery methodology, 2020 Grid Energy Storage Technology Cost and Performance Assessment](https://www.pnnl.gov/sites/default/files/media/file/LeadAcid_Methodology.pdf) PNNL / US DOE, 2020
3. [2022 Grid Energy Storage Technology Cost and Performance Assessment](https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2022-09/2022%20Grid%20Energy%20Storage%20Technology%20Cost%20and%20Performance%20Assessment.pdf) US DOE / PNNL, 2022
4. [EU Sustainable Batteries Regulation (2023/1542), policy summary](https://www.iea.org/policies/16763-eu-sustainable-batteries-regulation) International Energy Agency policy database, 2023
5. [Energy resilience of households in a prepared union: the potential of a sodium battery-based solution](https://www.eesc.europa.eu/sites/default/files/2026-06/qe-01-26-008-en-n.pdf) European Economic and Social Committee, 2026
6. [NFPA 855: 2026 edition updates and what they mean for energy storage projects](https://www.energy-storage.news/nfpa-855-2026-edition-updates-and-what-they-mean-for-energy-storage-projects/) Energy-Storage.news, 2026
7. [Lithium-Ion Battery Pack Prices Fall to $108 per Kilowatt-Hour, Despite Rising Metal Prices](https://about.bnef.com/insights/clean-energy/lithium-ion-battery-pack-prices-fall-to-108-per-kilowatt-hour-despite-rising-metal-prices-bloombergnef/) BloombergNEF, 2025
8. [A third of the world's children poisoned by lead, new groundbreaking analysis says (The Toxic Truth, UNICEF and Pure Earth)](https://www.unicef.org/press-releases/third-worlds-children-poisoned-lead-new-groundbreaking-analysis-says) UNICEF, 2020
9. [Regulation (EU) 2023/1542 concerning batteries and waste batteries (Official Journal text)](https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2023/1542/2023-07-28/eng/pdf) EUR-Lex, 2023

## Other sections

- [Summary](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_lead_acid/index.md)
- [Overview](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_lead_acid/overview/index.md)
- [Correlation](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_lead_acid/correlation/index.md)
- [Science and technology](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_lead_acid/sg-sci/index.md)
- [Engineering and performance](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_lead_acid/sg-eng/index.md)
- [Economics](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_lead_acid/sg-econ/index.md)
- [Impact and additionality](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_lead_acid/sg-impact/index.md)
- [Relationships](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_lead_acid/links/index.md)