# Liquid air storage: Engineering and performance

Low efficiency, cheap tanks, and freedom to build almost anywhere

Source page: https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_liquid_air/sg-eng/

What this tab covers Engineering and operating performance: round-trip efficiency, whether power and energy can be scaled separately, footprint and siting, and safety.

Efficiency is low for standalone plants but energy is cheap to add, sites are flexible, and the hazard profile is that of an industrial gas plant.

#### Round-trip efficiency
Unfavourable

A 2025 critical review in Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews puts standalone plants with cold and heat recovery at about 50 to 60 percent and plants hybridised with external heat or cold at 50 to 90 percent, while some decoupled configurations reach only 20 to 50 percent. Chinese reporting on Golmud cites 50 to 60 percent, rising to 60 to 70 percent with advanced heat recovery. NREL's cost baseline uses 80 percent for pumped hydro and 86 percent for lithium-ion batteries, both clearly higher. No measured efficiency for a commercial plant has been published yet.^[4](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2024.114986)^[8](https://www.ess-news.com/2025/12/30/china-powers-up-worlds-largest-liquid-air-storage-project/)^[11](https://atb.nrel.gov/electricity/2022/pumped_storage_hydropower)^[12](https://atb.nrel.gov/electricity/2022/utility-scale_battery_storage)
 Standalone about 50-60%^[4](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2024.114986) Hybrid with waste heat or cold about 50-90%^[4](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2024.114986) Advanced heat recovery (China) 60-70%^[8](https://www.ess-news.com/2025/12/30/china-powers-up-worlds-largest-liquid-air-storage-project/) Pumped hydro / lithium-ion (NREL ATB) 80% / 86%^[11](https://atb.nrel.gov/electricity/2022/pumped_storage_hydropower)^[12](https://atb.nrel.gov/electricity/2022/utility-scale_battery_storage)

#### Power and energy decoupling
Favourable

The liquefier sets charging power, the turbine sets output power and the tanks set energy, so duration can be extended by adding low-pressure tanks, which are cheap relative to the machinery. Carrington runs for 6 hours and Golmud for 10 hours. Highview describes Hunterston as a 3.2 GWh hybrid of liquid air and batteries lasting up to 12.5 hours, while Ofgem's assessment lists it as 300 MW for 8 hours (about 2.4 GWh, calculated), so the size is not settled.^[1](https://www.thechemicalengineer.com/news/energy-stored-as-liquefied-air-300m-investment-triggers-construction-of-uk-s-first-commercial-scale-plant/)^[7](https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20251110590267/en/Highview-Surpasses-Half-a-Billion-Pounds-of-Funding-With-Latest-%C2%A3130M-Capital-Raise-for-Phase-One-of-Long-Duration-Energy-Storage-Facility-at-Hunterston-Ayrshire)^[8](https://www.ess-news.com/2025/12/30/china-powers-up-worlds-largest-liquid-air-storage-project/)^[15](https://consult.ofgem.gov.uk/energy-generation/ldes-window-1-minded-to-decision/supporting_documents/window-1-minded-to-decisions-long-duration-electricity-storage-consultationpdf)
 Carrington duration 6 h^[1](https://www.thechemicalengineer.com/news/energy-stored-as-liquefied-air-300m-investment-triggers-construction-of-uk-s-first-commercial-scale-plant/) Golmud duration 10 h^[8](https://www.ess-news.com/2025/12/30/china-powers-up-worlds-largest-liquid-air-storage-project/) Hunterston (planned) 3.2 GWh hybrid, up to 12.5 h (company); 300 MW, 8 h in Ofgem list^[7](https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20251110590267/en/Highview-Surpasses-Half-a-Billion-Pounds-of-Funding-With-Latest-%C2%A3130M-Capital-Raise-for-Phase-One-of-Long-Duration-Energy-Storage-Facility-at-Hunterston-Ayrshire)^[15](https://consult.ofgem.gov.uk/energy-generation/ldes-window-1-minded-to-decision/supporting_documents/window-1-minded-to-decisions-long-duration-electricity-storage-consultationpdf)

#### Footprint and siting flexibility
Favourable

There is no need for mountains, caverns or salt. Plants can sit on industrial or former power-station land near grid connections, and benefit from nearby waste heat or cold, such as LNG terminals; Highview has worked with Sumitomo Heavy Industries in Japan on an LNG-linked design. The Golmud plant sits beside a 250 MW solar farm.^[3](https://power.h5mag.com/future_power_technology_aug25/explainer-does-liquid-air-energy-storage-hold-promise)^[8](https://www.ess-news.com/2025/12/30/china-powers-up-worlds-largest-liquid-air-storage-project/)^[14](https://www.enerdata.net/publications/daily-energy-news/china-launches-60-mw600-mwh-liquid-air-storage-facility-gobi-desert.html)
 Golmud co-located solar 250 MW^[14](https://www.enerdata.net/publications/daily-energy-news/china-launches-60-mw600-mwh-liquid-air-storage-facility-gobi-desert.html)

#### Safety and thermal runaway risk
Favourable

There is no thermal runaway or toxic gas. Hazards are cryogenic burns, oxygen enrichment near leaks and high-pressure rotating equipment, all handled under established industrial gas and pressure-equipment rules.^[1](https://www.thechemicalengineer.com/news/energy-stored-as-liquefied-air-300m-investment-triggers-construction-of-uk-s-first-commercial-scale-plant/)

#### Sources

1. [Energy stored as liquefied air: GBP 300m investment triggers construction of UK's first commercial-scale plant](https://www.thechemicalengineer.com/news/energy-stored-as-liquefied-air-300m-investment-triggers-construction-of-uk-s-first-commercial-scale-plant/) The Chemical Engineer (IChemE), 2024
2. [Explainer: does liquid air energy storage hold promise?](https://power.h5mag.com/future_power_technology_aug25/explainer-does-liquid-air-energy-storage-hold-promise) Power Technology (Future Power Technology, issue 166), 2025
3. [Liquid air energy storage: a critical review (She et al., Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 208, 114986); abstract checked via University of Birmingham repository](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2024.114986) Elsevier (Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews), 2025
4. [Highview surpasses half a billion pounds of funding with latest GBP 130M capital raise for phase one at Hunterston](https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20251110590267/en/Highview-Surpasses-Half-a-Billion-Pounds-of-Funding-With-Latest-%C2%A3130M-Capital-Raise-for-Phase-One-of-Long-Duration-Energy-Storage-Facility-at-Hunterston-Ayrshire) Highview Power via Business Wire, 2025
5. [China powers up world's largest liquid air storage project](https://www.ess-news.com/2025/12/30/china-powers-up-worlds-largest-liquid-air-storage-project/) ESS News, 2025
6. [Annual Technology Baseline 2022: Pumped Storage Hydropower](https://atb.nrel.gov/electricity/2022/pumped_storage_hydropower) US National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 2022
7. [Annual Technology Baseline 2022: Utility-Scale Battery Storage](https://atb.nrel.gov/electricity/2022/utility-scale_battery_storage) US National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 2022
8. [China launches 60 MW/600 MWh liquid air storage facility in the Gobi desert](https://www.enerdata.net/publications/daily-energy-news/china-launches-60-mw600-mwh-liquid-air-storage-facility-gobi-desert.html) Enerdata, 2026
9. [Long Duration Electricity Storage cap and floor Window 1: minded-to decisions (consultation)](https://consult.ofgem.gov.uk/energy-generation/ldes-window-1-minded-to-decision/supporting_documents/window-1-minded-to-decisions-long-duration-electricity-storage-consultationpdf) Ofgem, 2026

## Other sections

- [Summary](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_liquid_air/index.md)
- [Overview](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_liquid_air/overview/index.md)
- [Correlation](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_liquid_air/correlation/index.md)
- [Science and technology](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_liquid_air/sg-sci/index.md)
- [Economics](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_liquid_air/sg-econ/index.md)
- [Impact and additionality](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_liquid_air/sg-impact/index.md)
- [What to track](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_liquid_air/tracking/index.md)
- [Relationships](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_liquid_air/links/index.md)