# Unconventional oil and gas: Techniques

Fracking, steam floods, oil sands mines and frozen methane

Source page: https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_oil_gas_unconv/techniques/

What this tab covers The methods used to capture this energy: how each works, and how they compare on efficiency, cost, life-cycle emissions, maturity and scale.

Five techniques tap oil and gas that will not flow naturally. Fracturing alone supplies about 64% of US crude and 78% of US dry gas (2023).

#### Comparison

| Method | Efficiency | Cost | Life-cycle emissions | Maturity | Scale |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| **Hydraulic fracturing and horizontal drilling**^[1](https://jpt.spe.org/twa/technology-101-eor-methods-shale-and-tight-formations)^[23](https://www.eia.gov/conference/2013/pdf/presentations/kuuskraa.pdf)^[10](https://ogj.com/general-interest/economics-markets/article/55171807/rystad-energy-cost-of-new-upstream-oil-projects-rises-further)^[11](https://www.dallasfed.org/research/surveys/des/2025/2501.aspx)^[21](https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/ipcc_wg3_ar5_annex-iii.pdf)^[7](https://www.eia.gov/tools/faqs/faq.php?id=847)^[8](https://www.eia.gov/tools/FAQs/faq.php?id=907&t=8) | Under 10% of oil, 15-30% of gas in place | Breakeven about USD 45 per barrel (Rystad, 2024); USD 65 average for a new US well (2025) | Gas power about 490 g CO2e/kWh (IPCC median), more with methane leaks | mature | US tight oil 8.32 million barrels per day; shale gas 37.87 trillion cubic feet (2023) |
| **Enhanced oil recovery (water, CO2, steam)**^[2](https://www.spe.org/en/industry/increasing-hydrocarbon-recovery-factors/)^[24](https://www.iea.org/commentaries/whatever-happened-to-enhanced-oil-recovery)^[25](https://www.iea.org/commentaries/can-co2-eor-really-provide-carbon-negative-oil) | Gas injection adds 10-15 percentage points of oil in place | Not reported in our sources | Steam burns gas; US CO2 floods inject 300-600 kg CO2 per barrel, part stored | mature | About 375 projects, just over 2 million barrels per day (2017) |
| **Oil sands mining and SAGD**^[3](https://boereport.com/2016/06/29/albertas-surface-mineable-oil-sands-projects-recovery-factors-that-are-far-from-conventional/)^[10](https://ogj.com/general-interest/economics-markets/article/55171807/rystad-energy-cost-of-new-upstream-oil-projects-rises-further)^[4](https://eao.stanford.edu/publications/journal-articles/energy-efficiency-oil-sands-extraction-energy-return-ratios-1970-2010)^[12](https://www.aer.ca/node/2771) | Over 90% (mining plant), 40-60% (SAGD) of bitumen | Breakeven about USD 57 per barrel, up to USD 75 (2024) | Energy-intensive: point-of-use energy return about 3 | mature | Alberta 2025: 3.72 million barrels per day, 52% in situ |
| **Coalbed methane**^[9](https://eia.gov/energyexplained/natural-gas/where-our-natural-gas-comes-from.php) | Not reported | Not reported | As other natural gas | mature | About 2% of US dry gas (2022) |
| **Methane hydrate pilots**^[15](https://www.usgs.gov/index.php/centers/central-energy-resources-science-center/science/gas-hydrate-energy-research-2024-update) | Not established | Not commercial | Not assessed in our sources | pilot | Largest test: 861,400 m3 of gas, South China Sea (2019-2020) |

Fracking wells are quick to drill but recover little of the resource and must be constantly replaced. Oil sands mining recovers almost all the bitumen in the ore but is capital- and energy-intensive, with the highest costs per barrel. Coalbed methane is a niche and hydrates are experimental. Shale gas has the best energy return; oil sands and thermal recovery the worst.

#### How each method works
**Hydraulic fracturing and horizontal drilling**

A well is drilled into shale and turned to run horizontally for kilometres. Water, sand and chemicals pumped in at high pressure crack the rock, and the sand props the cracks open. Output falls steeply within a few years, so drilling must continue.^[1](https://jpt.spe.org/twa/technology-101-eor-methods-shale-and-tight-formations)^[23](https://www.eia.gov/conference/2013/pdf/presentations/kuuskraa.pdf)^[10](https://ogj.com/general-interest/economics-markets/article/55171807/rystad-energy-cost-of-new-upstream-oil-projects-rises-further)^[11](https://www.dallasfed.org/research/surveys/des/2025/2501.aspx)^[21](https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/ipcc_wg3_ar5_annex-iii.pdf)^[7](https://www.eia.gov/tools/faqs/faq.php?id=847)^[8](https://www.eia.gov/tools/FAQs/faq.php?id=907&t=8)
**Enhanced oil recovery (water, CO2, steam)**

After waterflooding, operators inject CO2 or hydrocarbon gas that mixes with the oil, steam that thins heavy oil, or chemicals that free oil from rock.^[2](https://www.spe.org/en/industry/increasing-hydrocarbon-recovery-factors/)^[24](https://www.iea.org/commentaries/whatever-happened-to-enhanced-oil-recovery)^[25](https://www.iea.org/commentaries/can-co2-eor-really-provide-carbon-negative-oil)
**Oil sands mining and SAGD**

Shallow ore is dug and washed with hot water to separate bitumen. Deeper deposits use SAGD: steam from one horizontal well heats the bitumen, which drains to a second well below.^[3](https://boereport.com/2016/06/29/albertas-surface-mineable-oil-sands-projects-recovery-factors-that-are-far-from-conventional/)^[10](https://ogj.com/general-interest/economics-markets/article/55171807/rystad-energy-cost-of-new-upstream-oil-projects-rises-further)^[4](https://eao.stanford.edu/publications/journal-articles/energy-efficiency-oil-sands-extraction-energy-return-ratios-1970-2010)^[12](https://www.aer.ca/node/2771)
**Coalbed methane**

Wells pump water out of unmined coal seams; lower pressure lets adsorbed methane flow to the well.^[9](https://eia.gov/energyexplained/natural-gas/where-our-natural-gas-comes-from.php)
**Methane hydrate pilots**

Lowering well pressure makes ice-like methane hydrate in seabed sands break down into gas and water.^[15](https://www.usgs.gov/index.php/centers/central-energy-resources-science-center/science/gas-hydrate-energy-research-2024-update)

#### Sources

1. [Technology 101: EOR methods for shale and tight formations](https://jpt.spe.org/twa/technology-101-eor-methods-shale-and-tight-formations) Journal of Petroleum Technology (SPE), 2016
2. [Increasing Hydrocarbon Recovery Factors (Zitha, Felder, Zornes, Brown and Mohanty)](https://www.spe.org/en/industry/increasing-hydrocarbon-recovery-factors/) Society of Petroleum Engineers, 2011
3. [Alberta's Surface Mineable Oil Sands Projects: Recovery Factors That Are Far From Conventional (Freeborn, GLJ)](https://boereport.com/2016/06/29/albertas-surface-mineable-oil-sands-projects-recovery-factors-that-are-far-from-conventional/) BOE Report, 2016
4. [Energy efficiency of oil sands extraction: Energy return ratios from 1970 to 2010 (Brandt, Englander and Bharadwaj, Energy 55: 693-702, doi:10.1016/j.energy.2013.03.080)](https://eao.stanford.edu/publications/journal-articles/energy-efficiency-oil-sands-extraction-energy-return-ratios-1970-2010) Stanford Environmental Assessment and Optimization Group, 2013
5. [FAQ: How much shale (tight) oil is produced in the United States?](https://www.eia.gov/tools/faqs/faq.php?id=847) US Energy Information Administration, 2024
6. [FAQ: How much shale gas is produced in the United States?](https://www.eia.gov/tools/FAQs/faq.php?id=907&t=8) US Energy Information Administration, 2024
7. [Natural gas explained: Where our natural gas comes from](https://eia.gov/energyexplained/natural-gas/where-our-natural-gas-comes-from.php) US Energy Information Administration, 2024
8. [Rystad Energy: Cost of new upstream oil projects rises further](https://ogj.com/general-interest/economics-markets/article/55171807/rystad-energy-cost-of-new-upstream-oil-projects-rises-further) Oil & Gas Journal, 2024
9. [Dallas Fed Energy Survey, First Quarter 2025](https://www.dallasfed.org/research/surveys/des/2025/2501.aspx) Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas, 2025
10. [ST98: Alberta Energy Outlook, Crude bitumen production](https://www.aer.ca/node/2771) Alberta Energy Regulator, 2026
11. [Gas Hydrate Energy Research: 2024 Update](https://www.usgs.gov/index.php/centers/central-energy-resources-science-center/science/gas-hydrate-energy-research-2024-update) US Geological Survey, 2024
12. [Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change, Annex III: Technology-specific cost and performance parameters (Table A.III.2, life-cycle emissions)](https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/ipcc_wg3_ar5_annex-iii.pdf) IPCC Working Group III, 2014
13. [EIA/ARI World Shale Gas and Shale Oil Resource Assessment (Kuuskraa, EIA Energy Conference presentation)](https://www.eia.gov/conference/2013/pdf/presentations/kuuskraa.pdf) US Energy Information Administration / Advanced Resources International, 2013
14. [Whatever happened to enhanced oil recovery?](https://www.iea.org/commentaries/whatever-happened-to-enhanced-oil-recovery) International Energy Agency, 2018
15. [Can CO2-EOR really provide carbon-negative oil?](https://www.iea.org/commentaries/can-co2-eor-really-provide-carbon-negative-oil) International Energy Agency, 2019

## Other sections

- [Summary](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_oil_gas_unconv/index.md)
- [Overview](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_oil_gas_unconv/overview/index.md)
- [Correlation](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_oil_gas_unconv/correlation/index.md)
- [Efficiency](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_oil_gas_unconv/efficiency/index.md)
- [Resources and labour](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_oil_gas_unconv/resources/index.md)
- [Impact on the biosphere](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_oil_gas_unconv/biosphere/index.md)
- [Relationships](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_oil_gas_unconv/links/index.md)