# Other and primary batteries: What to track

Cycle-life proof for new cells, and rules for old ones

Source page: https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_other_batt/tracking/

What this tab covers The attributes worth tracking regularly, with the latest value, the direction of travel and why each matters.

For emerging chemistries track cost and cycle-life data against lithium-ion and sodium-ion; for primary cells track EU collection and durability rules.

| Category | Attribute | Latest | Trend | Why it matters |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Techno-economic | **LCOS trajectory** | No published LCOS; zinc system USD 449/kWh installed (10 MW / 10 h, 2021) vs US lithium-ion 4 h LCOS USD 210-292/MWh (Lazard, Jul 2026)^[1](https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2022-09/2022%20Grid%20Energy%20Storage%20Technology%20Cost%20and%20Performance%20Assessment.pdf)^[11](https://www.lazard.com/media/kcfconhf/lazards-lcoeplus_vf.pdf) | → stable | US lithium-ion LCOS rose in 2026 on tariffs, a small opening for non-lithium chemistries, but global lithium-ion cell prices remain low. |
| Technical | **Capacity fade and state of health** | Zinc pouch cells often under 300 cycles, best about 750; potassium-ion full cells short of commercial needs; no commercial magnesium-ion data^[13](https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlehtml/2026/eb/d5eb00159e)^[14](https://digital.library.adelaide.edu.au/items/b732b874-d464-475a-ade6-e5af3cb1d53d) | ↗ improving | Bankable warranties need third-party test data on full-size cells. |
| Supply chain | **Critical mineral cost and geopolitical concentration** | China about 86% of primary magnesium and 32% of zinc mining (calculated, 2025); battery-grade lithium carbonate USD 9,000/t (2025 US average, real)^[5](https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-lithium.pdf)^[6](https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-zinc.pdf)^[7](https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-magnesium-metal.pdf) | ↕ volatile | Cheap lithium weakens the case for substitutes; magnesium is highly concentrated. |
| Market | **Ancillary service market saturation** | Not yet participating | → stable | Emerging chemistries will enter crowded short-duration markets. |
| Regulatory | **Safety and environmental compliance** | EU mercury limit 0.0005%; portable lead limit 0.01% from Aug 2024; battery passport for industrial batteries above 2 kWh from 18 Feb 2027^[9](https://www.sgs.com/en/news/2023/09/safeguards-11523-eu-issues-new-regulation-on-batteries-and-waste-batteries) | → stable | Rules tighten for both primary and rechargeable cells. |
| Environmental | **Lifecycle carbon payback period** | No figure found in sources reviewed | → stable | For primary cells the relevant measure is embodied carbon per kWh delivered, which is high. |
| Regulatory | **Portable battery collection rate (technology-specific)** | EU target 63% by 2027, 73% by 2030^[10](https://oeil.europarl.europa.eu/oeil/en/document-summary?id=1754181) | ↗ improving | Determines how much primary-cell zinc, manganese and silver is recovered. |
| Market | **Mercury-free button cells (technology-specific)** | Some button-type batteries may still contain mercury (US, 2025)^[3](https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-mercury.pdf) | ↗ improving | Indium substitutes in alkaline cells; full phase-out is a compliance marker. |

#### Sources

1. [2022 Grid Energy Storage Technology Cost and Performance Assessment (PNNL-33283), Executive Summary p. vii](https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2022-09/2022%20Grid%20Energy%20Storage%20Technology%20Cost%20and%20Performance%20Assessment.pdf) Pacific Northwest National Laboratory for US Department of Energy, 2022
2. [Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Mercury](https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-mercury.pdf) US Geological Survey, 2026
3. [Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Lithium](https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-lithium.pdf) US Geological Survey, 2026
4. [Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Zinc](https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-zinc.pdf) US Geological Survey, 2026
5. [Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Magnesium Metal](https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2026/mcs2026-magnesium-metal.pdf) US Geological Survey, 2026
6. [SafeGuardS 115/23: EU issues new regulation on batteries and waste batteries (summary of Regulation (EU) 2023/1542)](https://www.sgs.com/en/news/2023/09/safeguards-11523-eu-issues-new-regulation-on-batteries-and-waste-batteries) SGS, 2023
7. [Batteries and waste batteries: summary of Regulation (EU) 2023/1542](https://oeil.europarl.europa.eu/oeil/en/document-summary?id=1754181) European Parliament Legislative Observatory, 2023
8. [Lazard's Levelized Cost of Energy+ (LCOE+), July 2026 (LCOS v11.0 key assumptions p. 38; LCOE v19.0 assumptions p. 28)](https://www.lazard.com/media/kcfconhf/lazards-lcoeplus_vf.pdf) Lazard, 2026
9. [Several concerns about aqueous zinc metal batteries: from components to unit cells (Li, Liang and Fang, EES Batteries, first published 22 Dec 2025)](https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlehtml/2026/eb/d5eb00159e) Royal Society of Chemistry, 2025
10. [10 years development of potassium-ion batteries (Li, Wang, Wang, Lyu, Wang, Xia, Mao and Guo, Advanced Materials, article 2416717)](https://digital.library.adelaide.edu.au/items/b732b874-d464-475a-ade6-e5af3cb1d53d) Wiley / University of Adelaide repository, 2025

## Other sections

- [Summary](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_other_batt/index.md)
- [Overview](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_other_batt/overview/index.md)
- [Correlation](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_other_batt/correlation/index.md)
- [Science and technology](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_other_batt/sg-sci/index.md)
- [Engineering and performance](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_other_batt/sg-eng/index.md)
- [Economics](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_other_batt/sg-econ/index.md)
- [Impact and additionality](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_other_batt/sg-impact/index.md)
- [Relationships](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_other_batt/links/index.md)