# Solar photovoltaics: Efficiency

How close silicon is to its limit, and what comes next

Source page: https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_pv/efficiency/

What this tab covers How much of the energy available is actually captured or extracted, in per cent: theoretical limits, laboratory records, typical new equipment and in-service averages, each with exactly what is being measured.

The average new silicon module turns about 23% of the sunlight falling on it into electricity, against a theoretical ceiling of 33.7% for any single-junction cell. Laboratory tandem cells, which stack two absorbers, have passed 35%. A working system delivers roughly three quarters to four fifths of what its modules are rated for.

Chart: Efficiency ranges
 Theoretical limit Commercial Record In service

#### Efficiency by measure

| Measure | Range | Type | What is measured |
|---|---|---|---|
| **Shockley-Queisser limit, single-junction cell** | 33.7%^[14](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2016.02.015) | Theoretical limit | One absorber with the ideal band gap (about 1.34 eV) in standard sunlight |
| **Practical limit for a crystalline silicon cell** | 29.4%^[15](https://doi.org/10.1109/JPHOTOV.2013.2270351) | Theoretical limit | Silicon's band gap (1.12 eV) is not ideal and some freed electrons recombine inside the crystal |
| **Commercial crystalline silicon modules** | 18.9 to 24.8%^[1](https://www.ise.fraunhofer.de/content/dam/ise/de/documents/publications/studies/Photovoltaics-Report.pdf) | Commercial | Sunlight to DC electricity at standard test conditions, Q4 2024; weighted average 22.7% |
| **Record laboratory single-junction cells by material** | 21 to 28.3%^[1](https://www.ise.fraunhofer.de/content/dam/ise/de/documents/publications/studies/Photovoltaics-Report.pdf)^[17](https://www.longi.com/us/news/longi-earns-world-record-efficiency/)^[18](https://taiyangnews.info/pressreleases/2829-longi-sets-a-new-world-record-for-crystalline-silicon-cell-efficiency) | Record | CdTe 21.0%, CIGS 23.4%, perovskite 26.9%, silicon 28.1% (efficiency tables v68); LONGi silicon cell 28.29% (September 2026); best silicon module 26.4% |
| **Record perovskite-silicon tandem cell** | 35.2 to 35.5%^[16](https://www.nlr.gov/media/docs/libraries/pv/cell-pv-eff.pdf)^[19](https://www.longi.com/us/news/longi-breaks-world-record-for-crystalline-silicon-perovskite-tandem-solar-cell-efficiency/) | Record | Two stacked absorbers, so the single-junction limit does not apply: 35.2% (NREL chart), 35.5% (LONGi, July 2026) |
| **Record III-V multi-junction cells** | 39.5 to 47.6%^[16](https://www.nlr.gov/media/docs/libraries/pv/cell-pv-eff.pdf)^[1](https://www.ise.fraunhofer.de/content/dam/ise/de/documents/publications/studies/Photovoltaics-Report.pdf) | Record | Three to six III-V layers: 39.5% in normal sunlight, 47.6% under 665-fold concentration |
| **Performance ratio of an installed system** | 73.6 to 80%^[1](https://www.ise.fraunhofer.de/content/dam/ise/de/documents/publications/studies/Photovoltaics-Report.pdf) | In service | Share of rated output delivered: 80% new, 73.6% over the life |
| **Capacity factor, new utility projects worldwide** | 16%^[2](https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2026/Jul/IRENA_TEC_RPGC_in_2025_2026.pdf) | In service | Annual output divided by full rated output all year, 2025 global average |

#### Where the energy is lost

| Step | Loss |
|---|---|
| **Light not converted in the module (weak photons, surplus photon energy lost as heat, reflection)** | about 77% of incident sunlight for an average 22.7% module (calculated)^[1](https://www.ise.fraunhofer.de/content/dam/ise/de/documents/publications/studies/Photovoltaics-Report.pdf) |
| **Heat, wiring, soiling, mismatch and inverter losses when new** | about 20% of rated output (calculated from an initial performance ratio of 80%)^[1](https://www.ise.fraunhofer.de/content/dam/ise/de/documents/publications/studies/Photovoltaics-Report.pdf) |
| **Module ageing over the life** | a further 6.4 percentage points of performance ratio on average (calculated: 80% minus 73.6%)^[1](https://www.ise.fraunhofer.de/content/dam/ise/de/documents/publications/studies/Photovoltaics-Report.pdf) |

Module efficiency (about 23%) is measured under standard test conditions. The performance ratio (about 80%) is how much of that rating survives hot cells, cables and inverters. The capacity factor (about 16%) reflects night, cloud and sun angle, not any defect. With silicon cells near their 29.4% practical limit, research has moved to tandems.

#### Sources

1. [Photovoltaics Report (updated 14 July 2026)](https://www.ise.fraunhofer.de/content/dam/ise/de/documents/publications/studies/Photovoltaics-Report.pdf) Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE, 2026
2. [Renewable Power Generation Costs in 2025 (Executive summary, Figure S1)](https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2026/Jul/IRENA_TEC_RPGC_in_2025_2026.pdf) IRENA, 2026
3. [Tabulated values of the Shockley-Queisser limit for single junction solar cells (Ruhle, Solar Energy 130, 139-147)](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2016.02.015) Elsevier, 2016
4. [Reassessment of the limiting efficiency for crystalline silicon solar cells (Richter, Hermle and Glunz, IEEE Journal of Photovoltaics 3(4), 1184-1191)](https://doi.org/10.1109/JPHOTOV.2013.2270351) IEEE, 2013
5. [Best Research-Cell Efficiency Chart (Rev. 17 July 2026)](https://www.nlr.gov/media/docs/libraries/pv/cell-pv-eff.pdf) National Laboratory of the Rockies (formerly NREL), 2026
6. [28.13%, 26.4%! LONGi Sets New World Records for Crystalline Silicon Solar Cell and Module Efficiency (press release; module certified by NREL)](https://www.longi.com/us/news/longi-earns-world-record-efficiency/) LONGi, 2026
7. [28.29%! LONGi Sets a New World Record for Crystalline Silicon Cell Efficiency (press release; certified by ISFH)](https://taiyangnews.info/pressreleases/2829-longi-sets-a-new-world-record-for-crystalline-silicon-cell-efficiency) LONGi (via TaiyangNews press releases), 2026
8. [LONGi Breaks World Record to 35.5% for Crystalline Silicon-Perovskite Tandem Solar Cell Efficiency (press release; certified by ESTI)](https://www.longi.com/us/news/longi-breaks-world-record-for-crystalline-silicon-perovskite-tandem-solar-cell-efficiency/) LONGi, 2026

## Other sections

- [Summary](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_pv/index.md)
- [Overview](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_pv/overview/index.md)
- [Correlation](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_pv/correlation/index.md)
- [Techniques](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_pv/techniques/index.md)
- [Resources and labour](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_pv/resources/index.md)
- [Impact on the biosphere](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_pv/biosphere/index.md)
- [Relationships](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_pv/links/index.md)