# The Periodic Table of Energy

Source page: https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/

139 parts of the energy system, from natural sources to capture, transport, storage and use: how energy is held in nature, how much exists, and the materials each part needs.

## Natural sources · Fossil stores

- [Crude oil](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/crude_oil/): Liquid fuel for most transport and plastics feedstock; its price moves inflation
- [Natural gas](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/natural_gas/): Methane piped or shipped as LNG for heat, power and fertiliser hydrogen
- [Thermal coal](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/thermal_coal/): Steam coal burned in power stations; still the largest single source of electricity
- [Coking coal](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/coking_coal/): Metallurgical coal baked into coke for blast furnaces; hard to replace in steelmaking
- [Methane hydrates](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_hydrates/): Ice-bound methane under seafloor and permafrost; vast but barely tapped

## Natural sources · Earth, gravity and atoms

- [Uranium](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/uranium/): Nuclear reactor fuel, mined then converted, enriched and fabricated by few suppliers
- [Tides](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_tides/): Sea rise and fall from the pull of Moon and Sun; the raw resource
- [Earth's heat](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_geoheat/): Heat from Earth's interior, kept up by radioactive decay; the source behind geothermal
- [Fusion fuels](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_fusion_fuels/): Light atoms such as deuterium and lithium that release energy when fused
- [Natural hydrogen](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_natural_h2/): Hydrogen gas formed underground by rock reactions; newly found and still being studied

## Conversion and use · Fuel processing

- [Low-carbon hydrogen and e-fuels](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/green_hydrogen_carriers/): Clean hydrogen made with little CO2 and fuels from it: green ammonia, e-methanol, e-SAF
- [Refining and reforming](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_refining/): Refineries and reformers turning crude oil and gas into fuels and hydrogen
- [Power-to-X](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_power_to_x/): Clean electricity made into hydrogen, then e-fuels and chemicals; the conversion step

## Capture · Bioenergy

- [Bioethanol](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/bioethanol/): Fuel alcohol fermented from cane, molasses, maize or other grains and blended into petrol
- [Biodiesel (FAME)](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/biodiesel/): Vegetable oil or waste fat reacted with methanol and blended into diesel
- [Renewable diesel and SAF](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/hvo_saf/): Hydrotreated fats made into drop-in diesel and jet fuel, unlike blended FAME
- [Biogas and biomethane](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/biomethane/): Gas from digesting manure and waste, upgraded to pipeline grade as CBG in India
- [Biomass combustion and CHP](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_bio_combustion/): Burning wood, residues and pellets in boilers for heat and power
- [Thermochemical biomass conversion](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_bio_thermochem/): Gasification and pyrolysis using heat to break biomass into gas, oil or char

## Natural sources · Solar-derived flows

- [Sunlight](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_sunlight/): Radiant energy from the Sun, the origin of almost every other energy source
- [Wind](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_wind/): Moving air driven by uneven solar heating; the raw resource behind all wind tiles
- [Water cycle](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_hydro/): Sun-driven evaporation and rain that refill rivers, the natural resource behind hydropower
- [Ocean waves](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_waves/): Wind energy passed into the sea surface; the resource that wave converters tap
- [Ocean currents](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_currents/): Steady ocean flows driven by wind and differences in sea temperature and saltiness
- [Ocean thermal gradient](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_ocean_thermal/): Temperature gap between warm surface seawater and cold deep water, a resource for OTEC
- [Salinity gradient](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_salinity/): Energy released where fresh river water meets salty seawater, known as blue energy
- [Biomass](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_biomass/): Solar energy stored in wood, crop residues, dung and energy crops; the natural source
- [Ambient heat](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_ambient/): Low-temperature heat in air, ground and water that heat pumps can harvest
- [Muscle power](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_muscle/): Human and animal work fuelled by food, still vital for farming and carrying

## Capture · Solar

- [Solar photovoltaics](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_pv/): Panels of cells turning sunlight straight into electricity, from rooftops to utility parks
- [Concentrated solar power](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_csp/): Mirrors focusing sunlight to raise steam for turbines, often with molten-salt storage
- [Solar heat collectors](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_solar_heat/): Collectors turning sunlight into hot water and process heat rather than electricity
- [Passive solar and natural cooling](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_passive/): Building design that gathers or sheds heat and light without machines
- [Solar fuels and photosynthesis](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_solar_fuels/): Sunlight stored as chemical energy, in crops or in fuels from artificial photosynthesis

## Capture · Wind

- [Onshore wind](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_onshore_wind/): Land-based horizontal-axis turbines, the main source of new wind power capacity
- [Offshore wind](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_offshore_wind/): Turbines at sea on fixed foundations or floating platforms; costlier, steadier output
- [Small, airborne and traditional wind](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_small_wind/): Rooftop turbines, airborne kites and windmills or sails using wind as motion

## Capture · Water and ocean

- [Hydropower dams](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_hydro_dams/): Large reservoirs releasing water through turbines; dispatchable power with storage
- [Run-of-river and small hydro](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_small_hydro/): River plants with little or no reservoir, down to village micro-hydro
- [Wave energy converters](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_wave_power/): Devices turning the up and down motion of waves into electricity
- [Tidal and ocean-current power](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_tidal_power/): Barrages, lagoons and underwater turbines driven by tides and ocean currents
- [OTEC and salinity power](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_otec/): Plants using ocean temperature or salt differences; some also make fresh water

## Capture · Geothermal

- [Geothermal power plants](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_geo_power/): Plants using natural underground steam or hot water to spin turbines
- [Advanced geothermal](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_adv_geo/): Enhanced and closed-loop wells reaching heat where no natural reservoir exists
- [Geothermal direct use and ground-source heat pumps](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_geo_direct/): Earth heat used directly for warmth, or shallow ground heat moved by heat pumps

## Capture · Fossil and nuclear

- [Coal mining](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_coal_mining/): Extracting coal from underground seams or open pits, the start of the coal chain
- [Conventional oil and gas production](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_oil_gas_conv/): Onshore and offshore wells where oil and gas flow freely from reservoirs
- [Unconventional oil and gas](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_oil_gas_unconv/): Shale, tight, oil sands and coalbed methane, needing fracking or special methods
- [Nuclear fission reactors](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_fission/): Reactors splitting uranium or thorium to make steam; steady, low-carbon baseload power

## Capture · Emerging

- [Fusion reactors](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_fusion/): Experimental machines joining light atoms as the Sun does; not yet producing power
- [Micro energy harvesting](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_micro_harvest/): Tiny power from motion, heat or radio waves for sensors and wearables
- [Space-based solar power](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_space_solar/): Orbiting collectors that would beam solar power down to Earth; still experimental

## Transport · Electricity

- [AC transmission](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_hvac/): High-voltage overhead AC lines moving bulk power across long distances
- [HVDC links](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_hvdc/): Direct-current links with lower losses for long distances, undersea and between grids
- [Distribution grids, mini-grids and interconnectors](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_distribution/): Local power networks to homes and businesses, plus mini-grids and cross-border links
- [Underground, submarine and superconducting cables](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_cables/): Buried and subsea power cables for cities, offshore wind and international links
- [Railway electrification and wireless power](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_rail_wireless/): Overhead wires and third rails powering trains, plus wireless power transfer

## Transport · Liquid and gaseous fuels

- [Oil and product pipelines](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_oil_pipelines/): Pipelines moving crude and refined products overland and under the sea
- [Tankers, barges and fuel trucks](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_tankers/): Ships, barges, rail cars and road tankers that move liquid fuels
- [Gas pipelines and city gas](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_gas_pipelines/): High-pressure trunk lines and low-pressure city gas mains carrying natural gas
- [LNG chain](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_lng/): Gas chilled to liquid for shipping by sea, then regasified
- [CNG, LPG and biogas distribution](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_cng_lpg/): Cylinders, cascades and tankers delivering compressed or liquefied gas to users
- [Hydrogen and hydrogen carriers](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_h2_transport/): Moving hydrogen by pipe, as liquid, or inside ammonia and other carriers

## Transport · Solid and nuclear fuels

- [Coal transport](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_coal_transport/): Moving coal by rail rakes, bulk ships, barges, trucks and conveyors
- [Firewood and charcoal supply](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_traditional_fuel/): Informal supply of wood and charcoal by bag and head-load, mostly rural
- [Nuclear fuel transport](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_nuclear_transport/): Shielded, licensed containers and casks for fresh and spent nuclear fuel

## Transport · Heat, motion and embodied energy

- [District heating and cooling networks](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_district_heat_net/): Insulated pipe networks carrying hot water, steam or chilled water across towns
- [Heat-transfer fluids and heat pipes](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_heat_carriers/): Thermal oils, molten salts, refrigerants and heat pipes that move heat
- [Mechanical power transmission](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_mechanical_transmission/): Shafts, ropes, hydraulics and compressed air moving energy as motion or pressure
- [Embodied energy trade](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_embodied/): Energy exported inside metals, fertiliser and computing made where power is cheap

## Storage · Electrochemical

- [Lithium iron phosphate batteries](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_li_lfp/): Safer, long-lived lithium chemistry dominant in grid storage and many cheaper EVs
- [Nickel-rich lithium-ion batteries](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_li_nmc/): Higher-energy nickel cathode lithium cells for longer-range EVs and electronics
- [Next-generation lithium batteries](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_li_next/): Solid-state and lithium-sulphur cells promising more energy; mostly still in development
- [Sodium-ion batteries](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_sodium_ion/): Lithium-free cells using cheap, plentiful sodium; now entering the market
- [Lead-acid batteries](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_lead_acid/): Mature, recyclable cells for car starters, UPS units and home inverters
- [Nickel-based batteries](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_nickel_batt/): Nickel-cadmium, nickel-metal hydride and nickel-iron cells, used in hybrids and rail
- [Flow batteries](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_flow_batt/): Liquid electrolytes in tanks, such as vanadium, so capacity scales with tank size
- [High-temperature batteries](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_hightemp_batt/): Molten sodium-sulphur and similar cells that run hot for grid storage
- [Metal-air batteries](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_metal_air/): Cells that breathe oxygen from air; iron-air aims at multi-day grid storage
- [Other and primary batteries](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_other_batt/): Zinc and other emerging rechargeables, plus single-use alkaline and lithium cells

## Storage · Mechanical

- [Pumped hydro storage](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_pumped_hydro/): Water pumped uphill and released through turbines; the largest grid store in the world
- [Gravity storage](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_gravity/): Lifting heavy blocks or weights and lowering them to make power
- [Flywheels and small mechanical stores](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_flywheels/): Spinning rotors, springs and hydraulic accumulators giving short bursts of power
- [Compressed-air and CO2 storage](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_caes/): Air or CO2 compressed into caverns or domes, then expanded through turbines
- [Liquid air storage](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_liquid_air/): Air cooled to liquid, then warmed so it expands through a turbine

## Storage · Thermal

- [Sensible heat storage](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_sensible_heat/): Heat held by warming water, molten salt, sand, rock or bricks
- [Latent heat and cold storage](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_latent_heat/): Phase-change materials and ice stores that hold energy by melting or freezing
- [Carnot batteries](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_carnot/): Electricity stored as heat and cold, then turned back into electricity

## Storage · Chemical

- [Hydrogen storage](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_h2_storage/): Compressed gas, liquid, salt cavern and metal hydride stores of hydrogen
- [Ammonia, methanol and e-fuels](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_efuels_store/): Synthetic molecules holding energy for months, burned or cracked back to hydrogen
- [Fuel stocks and strategic reserves](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_fuel_stocks/): Tanks, caverns and stockpiles of oil, gas and coal, including strategic reserves
- [Biomass and biofuel stores](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_bio_store/): Energy kept in wood piles, pellets, charcoal, biofuels and stored biogas
- [Thermochemical storage](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_thermochem_store/): Reversible reactions that absorb heat and release it later, with little loss
- [Explosives and propellants](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_propellants/): Chemical stores built to release energy very fast, for mining and rockets

## Storage · Electrical and system

- [Capacitors and supercapacitors](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_supercaps/): Devices storing charge in an electric field; very fast and very long-lived
- [Superconducting magnetic storage](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_smes/): Energy held in the magnetic field of a superconducting coil; niche, very fast
- [Demand response and vehicle-to-grid](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_demand_flex/): Shifting when power is used: smart appliances, pre-cooling and parked EVs
- [Natural reservoirs](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_natural_stores/): Snowpack, lakes, glaciers, oceans and ground heat acting as nature's own stores

## Conversion and use · Conversion devices

- [Steam turbines and thermal power plants](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_steam_turbines/): Boilers raising steam to spin turbines in coal, nuclear, biomass and waste plants
- [Gas turbines and combined cycle](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_gas_turbines/): Turbines burning natural gas for peaking, or paired with steam for high efficiency
- [Internal combustion engines and gensets](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_engines/): Petrol, diesel and gas piston engines in vehicles, ships and backup generators
- [Generators and alternators](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_generators/): Machines turning rotation into electricity in almost every power plant
- [Electric motors and drives](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_motors/): Machines turning electricity into motion; they use about half the world's power
- [Transformers and power electronics](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_power_electronics/): Transformers, inverters and converters that change voltage and switch between AC and DC
- [Fuel cells](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_fuel_cells/): Cells turning hydrogen or other fuels straight into electricity, with heat as by-product
- [Electrolysers](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_electrolysers/): Equipment using electricity to split water into hydrogen, or brine into chlorine
- [Heat pumps, air conditioning and refrigeration](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_heat_pumps/): Compressor machines moving heat for space heating, air conditioning and refrigeration
- [Electric heating](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_electric_heat/): Resistance, induction, arc furnace and microwave heating driven by electricity
- [Lighting and displays](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_lighting/): Turning electricity into light, from LEDs and lasers to screens
- [Boilers, furnaces and stoves](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_combustion_heat/): Fuel-burning industrial boilers, kilns, furnaces and household cooking stoves

## Conversion and use · Transport systems

- [Combustion road vehicles](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_road_ice/): Cars, trucks and buses running on petrol, diesel, CNG or LPG
- [Electric and hybrid vehicles](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_evs/): Battery-electric and hybrid vehicles, the main new demand for lithium-ion cells
- [Rail traction](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_rail_traction/): Electric trains and metros on overhead wires, plus diesel-electric locomotives
- [Aviation propulsion](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_aviation/): Jet, turboprop and helicopter engines burning jet fuel or SAF
- [Ship propulsion](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_marine/): Marine diesel and LNG engines, wind-assisted and nuclear ships moving world trade
- [Rockets and human power](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_rockets/): Chemical rockets and muscle-powered bicycles, the two extremes of transport energy

## Conversion and use · Industry, buildings and farms

- [Energy-intensive industry](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_heavy_industry/): Steel, cement, aluminium, ammonia and chlor-alkali, where energy dominates costs
- [Energy in buildings](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_buildings/): Cooking, water heating, cooling and appliances in homes and offices
- [Data centres](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_data_centres/): Energy view of server halls turning electricity into computing and waste heat
- [Energy in farming](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_agri_energy/): Irrigation pumps, fertiliser and draught power: the energy it takes to grow food

## Recovery and reuse · Heat to heat

- [Recuperators and regenerators](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_recuperators/): Hot exhaust preheating combustion air in furnaces, kilns and glass melting
- [Boiler heat recovery](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_boiler_recovery/): Economisers and blowdown recovery reclaiming flue gas and hot water heat
- [Heat exchangers and pinch integration](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_heat_exchangers/): Passing heat between process streams, and pinch design to share hot and cold
- [Waste heat for drying, water and food](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_waste_heat_uses/): Low-grade heat drying products, desalinating water and warming greenhouses

## Recovery and reuse · Heat to power and cogeneration

- [Waste-heat power (steam Rankine)](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_whr_rankine/): Hot exhaust raising steam for power in cement, steel, glass and acid plants
- [Organic Rankine, Kalina and sCO2 cycles](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_orc/): Special working fluids making power from lower-temperature heat than steam needs
- [Engine exhaust recovery](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_engine_recovery/): Turbochargers and turbo-compounding that reuse engine exhaust energy
- [Combined heat and power](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_chp/): Making electricity and useful heat, or cooling, from the same fuel
- [Bagasse and black-liquor cogeneration](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_bio_cogen/): Sugar and paper mills burning bagasse or black liquor for own steam and power
- [Steel plant energy recovery](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_steel_recovery/): Coke dry quenching, top-gas turbines and gas reuse inside steelworks

## Recovery and reuse · Pressure, motion and waste fuels

- [Pressure and flow recovery](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_pressure_recovery/): Expanders and turbines turning surplus gas or water pressure into power
- [Regenerative braking and motion recovery](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_regen_braking/): Capturing energy as vehicles, lifts, cranes and motors slow down
- [Flare and off-gas recovery](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_flare_recovery/): Capturing gas that oilfields and plants would otherwise flare or vent
- [Waste-to-energy](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_waste_to_energy/): Incineration, landfill gas and fuels recovering energy from rubbish and residues
- [LNG cold and cryogenic recovery](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_lng_cold/): Using the cold released when LNG or liquid air warms back into gas

## Recovery and reuse · Shared heat and everyday recovery

- [Industrial heat pumps and vapour recompression](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_industrial_hp/): Heat pumps and vapour recompression lifting waste heat to process temperatures
- [Shared and district heat reuse](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_shared_heat/): One site's waste heat warming others: data centres, sewers, metros and factories
- [Building heat recovery](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_building_recovery/): Ventilation heat recovery and drain heat reuse in homes, hotels and offices
- [Electrical loss reduction](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_electrical_recovery/): Power factor correction and efficient equipment that cut electrical losses