# Water and sanitation: Value chain, from upstream to the customer Utilities and treatment firms supplying clean water and handling wastewater and sludge Source page: https://www.materialinsights.org/industries/water_sanitation/value-chain/ #### Value chain, from upstream to the customer **Criticality to the chain:** 5 · Chokepoint 4 · Critical 3 · Important 2 · Supporting 1 · Commodity service Stage 1 **Raw water sourcesBulk raw-water and reservoir authorities**5 · Chokepoint Own or manage dams, canals, river intakes and groundwater allocations, and sell raw water in bulk to city utilities, farms and industry.^[2](https://pib.gov.in/FactsheetDetails.aspx?Id=149070) **Why chokepoint:** Water has no substitute and each city depends on one or two sources; a failed monsoon or reservoir stops the whole chain. Technologies Dams and reservoirs Canal and transfer pipelines Hydrological monitoring Groundwater recharge structures Depends on Commodities [H₂O Water](https://www.materialinsights.org/commodities/water/)[Cem Cement](https://www.materialinsights.org/commodities/cement/)[St Steel](https://www.materialinsights.org/commodities/steel/) Energy [H2O Water cycle](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_hydro/)[NR Natural reservoirs](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_natural_stores/)[Mot Electric motors and drives](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_motors/) Industries [Construction and infrastructure](https://www.materialinsights.org/industries/construction/)**Examples:** Sardar Sarovar Narmada Nigam, Bhakra Beas Management Board, US Bureau of Reclamation Stage 2 **Pipes, pumps and treatment equipmentPipe manufacturers (ductile iron, steel, PVC and HDPE)**3 · Important Make transmission mains, distribution pipes and sewers, and sell them to utilities and EPC contractors under large tenders. **Why important:** Several large makers in each region, but tender qualification and diameter-specific capacity mean switching takes months. Technologies Centrifugal casting of ductile iron Spiral and longitudinal welded steel pipe PVC and HDPE extrusion Cement mortar and epoxy linings Depends on Commodities [Fe Iron ore](https://www.materialinsights.org/commodities/iron_ore/)[St Steel](https://www.materialinsights.org/commodities/steel/)[Zn Zinc](https://www.materialinsights.org/commodities/zinc/)[Cem Cement](https://www.materialinsights.org/commodities/cement/) Chemicals [PVC PVC](https://www.materialinsights.org/chemicals/pvc/)[HDPE High-density polyethylene](https://www.materialinsights.org/chemicals/hdpe/)[EPX Epoxy resins](https://www.materialinsights.org/chemicals/epoxy/) Energy [Kc Coking coal](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/coking_coal/)[Blr Boilers, furnaces and stoves](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_combustion_heat/)[Dist Distribution grids, mini-grids and interconnectors](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_distribution/) Industries [Metal products](https://www.materialinsights.org/industries/metal_products/)[Plastic and rubber products](https://www.materialinsights.org/industries/plastic_rubber/)**Examples:** Jindal SAW, Electrosteel Castings, Saint-Gobain PAM, Supreme Industries, Finolex Industries **Pump, valve and meter makers**3 · Important Supply the pumps that lift and pressurise water and sewage, plus valves and flow meters, to utilities and contractors. **Why important:** Many qualified makers globally and in India, but large engineered pumps have lead times of several months. Technologies Centrifugal and submersible pumps Variable-speed drives Butterfly and sluice valves Electromagnetic and ultrasonic flow meters Depends on Commodities [St Steel](https://www.materialinsights.org/commodities/steel/)[Cu Copper](https://www.materialinsights.org/commodities/copper/)[Ni Nickel](https://www.materialinsights.org/commodities/nickel/)[REE Rare earths](https://www.materialinsights.org/commodities/rare_earths/) Chemicals [EPDM EPDM](https://www.materialinsights.org/chemicals/epdm/) Energy [Mot Electric motors and drives](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_motors/)[PE Transformers and power electronics](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_power_electronics/) Industries [Machinery and equipment](https://www.materialinsights.org/industries/machinery/)[Electrical equipment](https://www.materialinsights.org/industries/electrical_equipment/)**Examples:** Grundfos, Xylem, KSB, Kirloskar Brothers, Shakti Pumps **Membrane and treatment-technology suppliers**4 · Critical Sell reverse-osmosis and ultrafiltration membranes, UV and ozone systems and packaged plants used for desalination, drinking water and water reuse. **Why critical:** A handful of firms in the US, Japan and Korea make most RO membrane elements, and plants are designed around their specifications. Technologies Thin-film composite RO membranes Ultrafiltration hollow fibres Membrane bioreactors UV and ozone disinfection Ion-exchange resins Depends on Chemicals [Amn Specialty amines and ethanolamines](https://www.materialinsights.org/chemicals/specialty_amines/)[PTFE Fluoropolymers (PTFE, PVDF)](https://www.materialinsights.org/chemicals/fluoropolymers/)[PSF Polyester fibre](https://www.materialinsights.org/chemicals/polyester_fibre/)[EPX Epoxy resins](https://www.materialinsights.org/chemicals/epoxy/) Energy [Dist Distribution grids, mini-grids and interconnectors](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_distribution/) Industries [Plastic and rubber products](https://www.materialinsights.org/industries/plastic_rubber/)**Examples:** DuPont Water Solutions, Toray, Nitto Hydranautics, Ion Exchange (India) **Water-treatment chemical suppliers**3 · Important Supply coagulants, disinfectants, antiscalants and pH chemicals to treatment plants under supply contracts. **Why important:** Many chlor-alkali and coagulant makers, but disinfection cannot pause, so utilities hold contracts and stock rather than switch quickly. Technologies Chlorination and chlorine dioxide Alum and polyaluminium chloride coagulants Polyelectrolyte flocculants Dosing and monitoring systems Depends on Commodities [NaCl Salt](https://www.materialinsights.org/commodities/salt/)[Al Aluminium](https://www.materialinsights.org/commodities/aluminum/)[CaO Lime](https://www.materialinsights.org/commodities/lime/) Chemicals [Cl2 Chlorine](https://www.materialinsights.org/chemicals/chlorine/)[NaOH Caustic soda](https://www.materialinsights.org/chemicals/caustic_soda/)[WT Water treatment chemicals](https://www.materialinsights.org/chemicals/water_treatment/)[H2SO4 Sulphuric acid](https://www.materialinsights.org/chemicals/sulphuric_acid/)[AC Activated carbon](https://www.materialinsights.org/chemicals/activated_carbon/) Energy [Dist Distribution grids, mini-grids and interconnectors](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_distribution/)**Examples:** Ecolab (Nalco Water), Kemira, Kurita, Gujarat Alkalies and Chemicals Stage 3 **Design and constructionWater EPC and design-build-operate contractors**3 · Important Design and build treatment plants, desalination plants and pipe networks, often operating them for 5 to 15 years under DBO or hybrid annuity contracts. **Why important:** A few dozen firms can deliver large plants, and pre-qualification rules narrow the field for each tender. Technologies Process design and hydraulic modelling Civil works for plants and reservoirs SCADA integration Hybrid annuity and DBO contracting Depends on Commodities [Cem Cement](https://www.materialinsights.org/commodities/cement/)[St Steel](https://www.materialinsights.org/commodities/steel/)[Agg Sand & gravel](https://www.materialinsights.org/commodities/sand_gravel/) Chemicals [Con Construction chemicals](https://www.materialinsights.org/chemicals/construction_chemicals/) Energy [ICE Internal combustion engines and gensets](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_engines/) Industries [Construction and infrastructure](https://www.materialinsights.org/industries/construction/)[Building materials](https://www.materialinsights.org/industries/building_materials/)[Finance: banking, insurance, markets](https://www.materialinsights.org/industries/finance/)[Software and IT services](https://www.materialinsights.org/industries/software_it/)**Examples:** VA Tech Wabag, Larsen & Toubro (Water and Effluent Treatment), Veolia, Acciona Stage 4 **Treatment and distributionWater utilities (municipal boards and private operators)**5 · Chokepoint Treat raw water and distribute it through networks to homes and businesses, and bill customers or receive state funding.^[2](https://pib.gov.in/FactsheetDetails.aspx?Id=149070)^,^[3](https://www.newsonair.gov.in/over-15-crore-households-provided-tap-water-connection-under-jal-jeevan-mission/) **Why chokepoint:** Each city has a single network operator with no near-term substitute, so an outage stops supply to everyone downstream. Technologies Coagulation, sand filtration and disinfection District metered areas and leak detection SCADA and telemetry Elevated reservoirs and pressure management Depends on Commodities [H₂O Water](https://www.materialinsights.org/commodities/water/)[CaO Lime](https://www.materialinsights.org/commodities/lime/) Chemicals [Cl2 Chlorine](https://www.materialinsights.org/chemicals/chlorine/)[WT Water treatment chemicals](https://www.materialinsights.org/chemicals/water_treatment/) Energy [Dist Distribution grids, mini-grids and interconnectors](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_distribution/)[Mot Electric motors and drives](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_motors/)[ICE Internal combustion engines and gensets](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_engines/) Industries [Electrical equipment](https://www.materialinsights.org/industries/electrical_equipment/)[Software and IT services](https://www.materialinsights.org/industries/software_it/)**Examples:** Delhi Jal Board, Bangalore Water Supply and Sewerage Board, Thames Water, American Water Works Stage 5 **Sewerage and wastewater treatmentSewerage and sewage-treatment plant operators**4 · Critical Run sewer networks, pumping stations and sewage treatment plants, and sell or reuse treated water and biogas where possible.^[4](https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/waste/india-s-sewage-treatment-plants-treat-only-a-third-of-the-sewage-generated-daily-cpcb-79157) **Why critical:** Capacity is short (installed STPs covered about 44% of India's sewage in 2021, calculated) and each plant is a local monopoly that takes years to build. Technologies Activated sludge and SBR processes Moving-bed biofilm reactors Anaerobic digestion of sludge Tertiary treatment for reuse Depends on Commodities [H₂O Water](https://www.materialinsights.org/commodities/water/) Chemicals [WT Water treatment chemicals](https://www.materialinsights.org/chemicals/water_treatment/)[Cl2 Chlorine](https://www.materialinsights.org/chemicals/chlorine/)[O2 Oxygen](https://www.materialinsights.org/chemicals/oxygen/) Energy [Mot Electric motors and drives](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_motors/)[CBG Biogas and biomethane](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/biomethane/)[Dist Distribution grids, mini-grids and interconnectors](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_distribution/) Industries [Waste and recycling](https://www.materialinsights.org/industries/waste_recycling/)[Machinery and equipment](https://www.materialinsights.org/industries/machinery/)**Examples:** Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation, VA Tech Wabag, Veolia, Suez **Septic tank emptying and faecal sludge treatment operators**2 · Supporting Empty on-site septic tanks and pits for households not on sewers and treat the sludge at dedicated plants. **Why supporting:** Many small local operators compete and a household can switch provider within days. Technologies Vacuum tankers Faecal sludge treatment plants Co-treatment at STPs Drying beds and composting Depends on Commodities [CaO Lime](https://www.materialinsights.org/commodities/lime/) Energy [ICV Combustion road vehicles](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_road_ice/) Industries [Vehicles, ships, rail, aircraft](https://www.materialinsights.org/industries/vehicles/)**Examples:** Tide Technocrats, Banka BioLoo, Sanergy Stage 6 **Customers, regulation and financeSmart-metering and digital-water vendors**2 · Supporting Sell meters, sensors and analytics that let utilities bill by volume and find leaks and non-revenue water. **Why supporting:** Competitive market with many vendors; utilities can change supplier at the next procurement round. Technologies AMI smart water meters Acoustic leak sensors Hydraulic digital twins Customer billing platforms Depends on Commodities [Cu Copper](https://www.materialinsights.org/commodities/copper/)[Li Lithium](https://www.materialinsights.org/commodities/lithium/) Chemicals [PC Polycarbonate](https://www.materialinsights.org/chemicals/polycarbonate/) Energy [Zn Other and primary batteries](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_other_batt/) Industries [Computers and electronics](https://www.materialinsights.org/industries/computers_electronics/)[Telecommunications](https://www.materialinsights.org/industries/telecom/)[Software and IT services](https://www.materialinsights.org/industries/software_it/)**Examples:** Xylem (Sensus), Itron, Kamstrup, Badger Meter **Regulators, ministries and development lenders**4 · Critical Set water quality and discharge standards, allocate funds under schemes such as the Jal Jeevan Mission and AMRUT, and lend for large projects.^[2](https://pib.gov.in/FactsheetDetails.aspx?Id=149070)^,^[3](https://www.newsonair.gov.in/over-15-crore-households-provided-tap-water-connection-under-jal-jeevan-mission/)^,^[5](https://www.who.int/news/item/26-08-2025-1-in-4-people-globally-still-lack-access-to-safe-drinking-water---who--unicef) **Why critical:** Most water capex in India is government funded, so a delay in central or state releases stalls projects across the chain. Technologies Drinking water and effluent standards Tariff regulation Results-based funding Water quality testing laboratories Depends on Chemicals [Rgt Reagents and high-purity lab chemicals](https://www.materialinsights.org/chemicals/lab_reagents/) Energy [Bld Energy in buildings](https://www.materialinsights.org/energy/e_buildings/) Industries [Finance: banking, insurance, markets](https://www.materialinsights.org/industries/finance/)[Public administration, defence and security](https://www.materialinsights.org/industries/public_admin/)**Examples:** Ministry of Jal Shakti, Central Pollution Control Board, World Bank, Ofwat ## Other sections - [Overview](https://www.materialinsights.org/industries/water_sanitation/index.md) - [Where ₹100 goes](https://www.materialinsights.org/industries/water_sanitation/cost-mix/index.md) - [Price links with suppliers](https://www.materialinsights.org/industries/water_sanitation/price-links/index.md) - [Example story](https://www.materialinsights.org/industries/water_sanitation/story/index.md) - [Materials drawn on](https://www.materialinsights.org/industries/water_sanitation/materials/index.md) - [Chokepoints and risks](https://www.materialinsights.org/industries/water_sanitation/risks/index.md) - [Sources](https://www.materialinsights.org/industries/water_sanitation/sources/index.md)