Sulphuric acid: Overview
From fertiliser to nickel batteries: why acid is everywhere
What this tab covers What the chemical is, how big its market is, what it is used for (with shares, volumes, why it wins and what could replace it), and its chain from raw material to end user. Ends with three things to remember.Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) is made by burning sulphur or capturing sulphur dioxide from metal smelters, oxidising it to SO3 over a vanadium catalyst and absorbing it in water. World output is roughly 230-270 Mt a year, more than any other chemical. Over half dissolves phosphate rock for fertiliser; the rest leaches copper, nickel and uranium and feeds TiO2, caprolactam, HF and LFP plants. It is cheap to make but costly to ship, so the 2026 sulphur shock and China's export halt hit farmers and copper and nickel miners at the same time.
Volume about 230 Mt a year (2025, derived: about 90% of 84 Mt sulphur in all forms consumed as acid x 3.06 t acid per t S); IndexBox records 131 Mt from reported national data (2024), which under-counts China Market value about $14 billion at 2024 prices for the reported 132 Mt (IndexBox); about $25-30 billion for the full volume at 2024 prices (indicative, basis: about $110/t average value x 230 Mt); far higher in 2026 Growth consumption up 3.5% in 2024 (IndexBox); demand growth led by nickel HPAL and LFP, which added over 8 Mt of sulphur demand in 2025 (SMM) USGS MCS 2026 (Sulfur); IndexBox world sulphuric acid market overview (2024 data); SMM 2025 sulphur review via sulfur tileKey uses
| Use | Share | Annual volume | Why this commodity | Alternatives |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Phosphoric acid and phosphate fertilisers (DAP, MAP, TSP, SSP) | 55% | about 127 Mtbasis | Phosphate rock only releases its phosphorus when attacked by a strong acid. Sulphuric acid is the cheapest strong acid and the reaction leaves gypsum that can be filtered off. About 2.5-3 t of acid goes into each tonne of P2O5, and burning sulphur on site also gives the steam and power a phosphate complex needs. Sulfur tile (Indian Express via VisionIAS, Sep 2026; USGS MCS 2026) | Nitric acid (nitrophosphate route in parts of Europe and China) Hydrochloric acid (small, local) Direct application of ground rock |
| Metal leaching: nickel HPAL, copper SX-EW, uranium, zinc | 12% | about 28 Mtbasis | Acid dissolves metals from low-grade oxide and laterite ores that cannot be smelted economically. Indonesian HPAL plants and Chilean and Congolese heap leach operations depend on it, and acid is often their largest reagent cost. Sulfur tile (Indian Express 2026; SMM 2026); Hellenic Shipping News citing Kpler (2026) | Pyrometallurgical routes (RKEF nickel pig iron, flotation and smelting for copper) Smelter acid made next to the mine |
| Other chemicals: TiO2, caprolactam and ammonium sulphate, HF, LFP precursors, LAB sulphonation, viscose, chromium and aluminium sulphates | 20% | about 46 Mtbasis | Acid is a cheap source of sulphate, a dehydrating agent and a catalyst. The sulphate TiO2 route uses about 3.5-4 t per t of pigment, and HF needs about 2.6 t per t. China's LFP boom (3.75 Mt in 2025) adds demand through purified phosphoric acid and iron phosphate. EU CRM study 2023; SMM via sulfur tile; stoichiometry | Chloride route for TiO2 Hydrochloric acid for some salts and pickling |
| Petroleum refining (alkylation catalyst) and spent acid regeneration | 5% | about 12 Mtbasis | Refiners use concentrated acid to join isobutane and light olefins into alkylate, a clean high-octane petrol component. The acid is diluted and contaminated in use and is regenerated by burning it back to SO2. USGS MCS 2026; EU CRM 2023 (refining 24% of EU sulphur use) | HF alkylation Solid-acid and ionic-liquid alkylation |
| Pulp and paper, water treatment, steel pickling, lead-acid batteries, food and electronics grades | 8% | about 18 Mtbasis | Many small uses need a cheap acid for pH control, chlorine dioxide generation, alum making or cleaning. Electronic-grade acid at parts-per-trillion metal levels is used to clean wafers. Indicative split | Hydrochloric acid (steel pickling) Carbon dioxide (pH control in water) |
From raw material to user
- Sulphur sources About 90% of world sulphur is recovered from sour gas, refineries and smelters; world output was 84 Mt S in all forms in 2025 (USGS).
- Burning or capture Molten sulphur is burnt to SO2, or SO2 is captured from copper, zinc, nickel and lead smelters; China also roasts pyrite.
- Contact process SO2 is oxidised to SO3 over vanadium pentoxide catalyst in 3-5 beds; double contact double absorption plants convert about 99.7-99.9% (indicative).
- Absorption and heat recovery SO3 is absorbed in 98-99% acid; a sulphur burner exports about 1.2-1.4 t of high-pressure steam per t acid (indicative), often run through a turbine.
- Storage and shipping Acid moves by pipeline, rail and chemical tankers of 10-40 kt; about 20 Mt crossed borders in 2024 (IndexBox).
- End use Phosphate complexes, HPAL and copper leach sites, chemical plants and refineries; spent acid is regenerated, 2.5-5 Mt a year in the US alone (USGS).
Made from (commodity table)
S SulfurCu CopperZn ZincThree things to know
- Each tonne of sulphur makes about 3 t of acid, so acid cost tracks sulphur, which rose from $46/t (US average, 2024) to $740/t (QatarEnergy, May 2026).
- China exported 4.6 Mt in 2025 and then halted most exports from May 2026, taking about 2.8 Mt out of trade (S&P Global; CRU).
- Chile is the biggest importer (3.6 Mt in 2024) because its copper leach mines need acid; CFR Chile doubled to $380/t between February and April 2026 (Platts).