Micro energy harvesting: Resources and labour

Tiny devices, but some rare and radioactive ingredients

What this tab covers The natural resources (land, water, materials, fuel or feedstock) and the labour needed to capture this energy, per unit, with the reason each is needed.

Material quantities are small per device but some are specialised: lead and tellurium compounds, plutonium-238 and nickel-63. No jobs-per-MW data exist; the work is concentrated in materials science and electronics.

Natural resources

Resource	How much	Why it is needed
Piezoelectric ceramics	Barium titanate, barium zirconate titanate and potassium sodium niobate (all lead-free) were evaluated for roadway units; the project chose a material it calls piezo-magnetic⁴	Only crystals without a centre of symmetry separate charge when strained.
Thermoelectric semiconductors (lead, tellurium, germanium, silver, antimony)	MMRTG couples use lead telluride and TAGS (tellurium, antimony, germanium, silver)²	Good thermoelectrics conduct electricity well but heat poorly, a combination found in heavy-element tellurides.
Plutonium-238	4.8 kg of plutonium dioxide per MMRTG; US production target 1.5 kg a year by 2026²¹¹	Its decay heat is steady for decades and its alpha radiation is easily shielded; it is made by irradiating targets in research reactors.
Nickel-63	Sealed source in each BV100 cell¹⁰	A low-energy beta emitter that can be contained by the cell itself.
Road and floor surface	Estimated 51 kWh per m2 per year in a road lane; main barrier is civil construction of instrumented roads³	Harvesters must sit where loads pass, so they compete with paving and need durable installation.

Labour

Phase	How much	Skills	Why it is needed
Manufacturing	No published jobs data¹³	Thin-film and ceramic processing, semiconductor fabrication, low-power electronics	Devices are small and mass-produced like other electronic components.
Construction and installation	No published jobs data³	Civil engineering and paving for road and floor systems	Embedding harvesters in roads was identified as the main barrier to scale.
Operation (radioisotope supply)	No published jobs data¹¹	Reactor operation and radiochemistry at national laboratories	Plutonium-238 is produced only by irradiation in the High Flux Isotope Reactor and the Advanced Test Reactor.
Decommissioning	No published jobs data¹⁰	Electronics recycling; licensed handling for radioactive sources	Devices contain metals and, for nuclear types, sealed isotopes.

Because each device is tiny, the resource question is less about tonnes than about scarce, hazardous or regulated ingredients.

Sources

Multi-Mission Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (MMRTG) fact sheet NASA, 2020
Ultra-High Power Density Roadway Piezoelectric Energy Harvesting System (CEC-500-2023-036) California Energy Commission / University of California, Merced, 2023
Force Multiplier Actuated Piezoelectric Energy Harvester for Roadway Energy Recovery (CEC-500-2023-008) California Energy Commission / Pyro-E, 2023
Nuclear battery: Chinese firm aiming for mass market production World Nuclear News, 2024
U.S. Department of Energy Completes Major Shipment of Plutonium-238 for NASA Missions US Department of Energy, 2023
Energy Harvesting System Market, Global Forecast to 2030 MarketsandMarkets, 2025