Other and primary batteries: What to track
Cycle-life proof for new cells, and rules for old ones
What this tab covers The attributes worth tracking regularly, with the latest value, the direction of travel and why each matters.For emerging chemistries track cost and cycle-life data against lithium-ion and sodium-ion; for primary cells track EU collection and durability rules.
| Category | Attribute | Latest | Trend | Why it matters |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Techno-economic | LCOS trajectory | No published LCOS; zinc system USD 449/kWh installed (10 MW / 10 h, 2021) vs US lithium-ion 4 h LCOS USD 210-292/MWh (Lazard, Jul 2026)111 | → stable | US lithium-ion LCOS rose in 2026 on tariffs, a small opening for non-lithium chemistries, but global lithium-ion cell prices remain low. |
| Technical | Capacity fade and state of health | Zinc pouch cells often under 300 cycles, best about 750; potassium-ion full cells short of commercial needs; no commercial magnesium-ion data1314 | ↗ improving | Bankable warranties need third-party test data on full-size cells. |
| Supply chain | Critical mineral cost and geopolitical concentration | China about 86% of primary magnesium and 32% of zinc mining (calculated, 2025); battery-grade lithium carbonate USD 9,000/t (2025 US average, real)567 | ↕ volatile | Cheap lithium weakens the case for substitutes; magnesium is highly concentrated. |
| Market | Ancillary service market saturation | Not yet participating | → stable | Emerging chemistries will enter crowded short-duration markets. |
| Regulatory | Safety and environmental compliance | EU mercury limit 0.0005%; portable lead limit 0.01% from Aug 2024; battery passport for industrial batteries above 2 kWh from 18 Feb 20279 | → stable | Rules tighten for both primary and rechargeable cells. |
| Environmental | Lifecycle carbon payback period | No figure found in sources reviewed | → stable | For primary cells the relevant measure is embodied carbon per kWh delivered, which is high. |
| Regulatory | Portable battery collection rate (technology-specific) | EU target 63% by 2027, 73% by 203010 | ↗ improving | Determines how much primary-cell zinc, manganese and silver is recovered. |
| Market | Mercury-free button cells (technology-specific) | Some button-type batteries may still contain mercury (US, 2025)3 | ↗ improving | Indium substitutes in alkaline cells; full phase-out is a compliance marker. |
Sources
- 2022 Grid Energy Storage Technology Cost and Performance Assessment (PNNL-33283), Executive Summary p. vii Pacific Northwest National Laboratory for US Department of Energy, 2022
- Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Mercury US Geological Survey, 2026
- Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Lithium US Geological Survey, 2026
- Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Zinc US Geological Survey, 2026
- Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Magnesium Metal US Geological Survey, 2026
- SafeGuardS 115/23: EU issues new regulation on batteries and waste batteries (summary of Regulation (EU) 2023/1542) SGS, 2023
- Batteries and waste batteries: summary of Regulation (EU) 2023/1542 European Parliament Legislative Observatory, 2023
- Lazard's Levelized Cost of Energy+ (LCOE+), July 2026 (LCOS v11.0 key assumptions p. 38; LCOE v19.0 assumptions p. 28) Lazard, 2026
- Several concerns about aqueous zinc metal batteries: from components to unit cells (Li, Liang and Fang, EES Batteries, first published 22 Dec 2025) Royal Society of Chemistry, 2025
- 10 years development of potassium-ion batteries (Li, Wang, Wang, Lyu, Wang, Xia, Mao and Guo, Advanced Materials, article 2416717) Wiley / University of Adelaide repository, 2025