Cement: Criticality

Plentiful everywhere, so the real risk is climate

What this tab covers How exposed economies are to a supply disruption: the EU, US and India listings, the concentration score, and a quantified exposure for the US, EU, India, China, Japan, Latin America, the Middle East and Australia. Where the EU scored it, a chart of supply risk against economic importance, with import reliance, recycling input and substitutes.

Exposure by region

Region	Exposure	Share of world output	Share of world imports	Share of world exports	Net trade (US$)	On own critical list	Position
US	High	–	24.1%	1.9%	−$2.24 bn	No	Produced 84 Mt in 2025 but was 21% import reliant, importing 23 Mt of cement mainly from Turkey, Canada, Vietnam and Greece; the largest importer by value in 2024 (USGS 2026; UN Comtrade).
EU	Low	–	27.3%	33.1%	+$533.7 m	No	Germany (6.7%) and Spain (4.5%) are top-five exporters by value, while France, the Netherlands and Italy each took 4.1-5.3% of world import value in 2024 (UN Comtrade); cement falls under the EU carbon border adjustment.
India	High	–	1.5%	0.0%	−$150.3 m	No	Second largest producer at 470 Mt in 2025 (USGS), essentially self-sufficient, importing 2.5 Mt worth $150 million in 2024, 1.5% of world import value (UN Comtrade).
China	Low	–	0.0%	3.1%	+$310.6 m	No	About 45% of world output at 1,700 Mt in 2025, falling, with 1,800 Mt of clinker capacity, and 3.1% of world export value in 2024 (USGS; UN Comtrade).
Japan	Low	–	0.0%	2.8%	+$278.0 m	No	Produced 44 Mt in 2025 (USGS) and exported 8.0 Mt in 2024 at an average of about $35/t (UN Comtrade).
Latin America	High	–	3.9%	2.9%	−$104.8 m	no list	Brazil produced 67 Mt and Mexico 42 Mt in 2025 (USGS); Mexico's Cemex is a global producer.
Middle East	High	–	6.9%	3.4%	−$358.3 m	no list	Turkey (89 Mt) is the largest exporter and Egypt (64 Mt) the second, while Saudi Arabia (54 Mt output, 75 Mt clinker capacity) and Iran (68 Mt) have spare capacity (USGS; UN Comtrade).
Australia	High	–	2.8%	0.0%	−$286.9 m	No	Imported 4.8 Mt worth $287 million in 2024, 2.8% of world import value (UN Comtrade).

Exposure rating: High when the region is a net importer whose import share is at least three times its share of world output (or, for farm goods, it produces under 70% of what it consumes); Medium for other net importers (or 70-95% self-sufficiency), raised to High when world supply is highly concentrated in another country; Low for net exporters or self-sufficient regions. Net importer status uses tonnage where reported, otherwise value. Output: n/a. Trade: UN Comtrade 2024 (EU = sum of member states, including intra-EU trade). Critical lists: US 2025, EU 2024/1252, India 2023, China 2016 strategic minerals, Japan METI, Australia 2024.

Cement is not on the US 2025 or India 2023 critical-minerals lists. Its vulnerability is environmental and local. Calcining limestone releases CO2, and Conway notes that curing concrete reabsorbs only about 17% of it. Concrete also uses about a tenth of the world's industrial water (Conway). Substitutes exist for the end use: steel, wood, brick, asphalt and stone compete with concrete. Within cement, fly ash and slag replace clinker. In the US, 63% of shipments were blended cement in the first nine months of 2025.

EU 2023 Not assessed US 2025 list No India 2023 list No US net import reliance, 2025 21% share of apparent consumption

Substitutes

Aluminium, asphalt, clay brick, glass, gypsum, steel, stone and wood compete with concrete; fly ash and slag partly replace portland cement