Cement: Stocks
Limestone is endless, so what really limits supply?
What this tab covers How much is left and how much is held. For minerals and energy: reserves, current output, years of supply and recycling for the top five countries. For farm commodities: production, ending stocks and stocks-to-use for the top five producers (USDA, October 2026). It also covers inventories and stockpiles.Top five countries: reserves, output and years of supply
| Country | Reserves not applicable (raw materials abundant) | Current output Mt cement (2025e) | Years of supply | Recycling |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| China | – | 1,700 | – | n/a |
| India | – | 470 | – | n/a |
| Vietnam | – | 100 | – | n/a |
| Turkey | – | 89 | – | n/a |
| United States | – | 84 | – | n/a |
Recycling
Cement is not recycled, but crushed concrete is reused as aggregate, and kilns burn waste fuels and use slag and fly ash (USGS). Reserves are not meaningful: limestone and clay are abundant, though local permits can bite, as in Sweden's 2021 shortage after a Gotland quarry licence was refused (Conway). Clinker capacity in 2025: China 1,800 Mt, India 400 Mt, Vietnam 110 Mt, Turkey 100 Mt, US 100 Mt (USGS).
Cement has no reserve constraint. USGS points to the lime and crushed-stone chapters for raw materials, which are vast. Local limits still bite. In 2021 Sweden faced a concrete shortage when a court refused a new Gotland limestone licence for its largest cement maker (Conway). The real stock is concrete in use. Krausmann et al. estimate global material stocks grew from 35 Pg in 1900 to 792 Pg in 2010, and half of the 2010 outflow was concrete. Cement itself is not recycled, but crushed concrete is reused as aggregate.
Cement is not recycled, but significant quantities of concrete are recycled as construction aggregate.