Lithium: Emissions
Brine versus rock: a nearly sevenfold carbon gap
What this tab covers The greenhouse-gas footprint of the commodity at a global level, split by lifecycle phase: extraction (or farming), refining and processing, movement, usage, and recycling or end of life. Intensities are per unit of product; the global total combines intensity with world output. Also covers other environmental impacts and the main levers to cut emissions. Emission intensity 13.0 t CO2e per t LCE range about 3 (Chilean brine carbonate) to about 20 (Australian spodumene converted in China) · cradle-to-gate; production-weighted global average (indicative), about 50% hard rock, 27% South American brine, 21% Chinese mixed sources Global emissions per year 20.0 Mt CO2e per year 2025 · about 1.54 Mt LCE x about 13 t CO2e/t (indicative)Per t of battery-grade lithium chemical (LCE: carbonate or hydroxide); cradle-to-gate. Intensity: Kelly et al. 2021 (Argonne, Resources, Conservation & Recycling); Benchmark Mineral Intelligence, Mar 2023 (hard rock over three times brine); weighting by USGS MCS 2026 output (indicative). Global total: USGS MCS 2026; intensity as above.
Share of footprint by lifecycle phase
Extraction 29% Refining / processing 68% Movement 3%Footprint by lifecycle phase
| Phase | Intensity | Share | Main sources of emissions | Notes | Source |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Extraction | about 4-6 t CO2e/t LCE on the hard-rock route (indicative) | 29% | diesel mining, crushing and flotation to SC6; for brine, pumping and pond management | Benchmark finds spodumene concentrate production is 29% of hard-rock emissions. | Benchmark Mineral Intelligence, Mar 2023 |
| Refining / processing | about 10-14 t CO2e/t LCE on the hard-rock route (indicative) | 68% | roasting spodumene at about 1,000 C, acid leaching, reagents; China's coal-heavy grid alone is 27% of the total | For brine, soda ash is the largest single contributor (29%) and the Chilean grid only 6%. | Benchmark Mineral Intelligence, Mar 2023 |
| Movement | about 0.3-0.5 t CO2e/t LCE (indicative calculation) | 3% | bulk shipping of 6-8 t of SC6 concentrate per t LCE from Australia to China | Brine chemicals ship as finished product, so movement is smaller. | Indicative calculation using IMO bulk-carrier factors |
| Usage | none directly; enables EV and grid storage emission cuts | – | lithium-ion batteries | Battery manufacture adds emissions outside this boundary; the EV's lifetime use avoids more. | Not applicable |
| Recycling / end of life | not established at scale; EU end-of-life recycling input rate 0% | – | hydrometallurgical recovery from black mass | Benchmark expects recycling to supply almost half of lithium by 2050. Lithium is often the last metal recovered from black mass. | EU CRM 2023; Benchmark |
Other environmental impacts
Brine evaporation uses large volumes of water from arid salars in the Atacama, a source of conflict with Indigenous communities. Hard-rock mining creates waste rock and tailings; lepidolite processing in China generates large volumes of residue.
Levers to cut emissions
- Renewable power for conversion: China's grid is 27% of hard-rock route emissions
- Convert spodumene near the mine with clean power (Australian and US refineries)
- Direct lithium extraction that cuts pond time and water loss, if powered cleanly
- Lower-carbon soda ash and reagents for brine
- Battery recycling as end-of-life volumes grow
India
India produces no lithium. GSI reported a 5.9 Mt inferred resource at Reasi, Jammu and Kashmir (2023), and KABIL has blocks in Catamarca, Argentina. Indian cell plants will import chemicals mostly from China, so their footprint carries China's coal-based conversion.
Emission figures are indicative global averages from the life-cycle studies named; actual footprints vary widely by site, energy mix and method.