Rare earths: Emissions
Why estimates range from 10 to 60 tonnes of CO2e
What this tab covers The greenhouse-gas footprint of the commodity at a global level, split by lifecycle phase: extraction (or farming), refining and processing, movement, usage, and recycling or end of life. Intensities are per unit of product; the global total combines intensity with world output. Also covers other environmental impacts and the main levers to cut emissions. Emission intensity 17.0 t CO2e per t range about 10-60 across published LCAs, depending on route, element and allocation (indicative) · cradle-to-gate, Chinese bastnaesite route; economic allocation raises the figure for valuable heavy elements Global emissions per year 6.60 Mt CO2e per year 2025 · 390 kt REO x about 17 t CO2e/t (indicative)Per t of separated light rare-earth oxide (e.g. neodymium oxide); cradle-to-gate. Intensity: Nuss & Eckelman 2014, PLoS ONE (indicative); Bailey et al. 2020, KU Leuven state-of-the-art LCA (route ranking). Global total: USGS MCS 2026; intensity as above.
Footprint by lifecycle phase
| Phase | Intensity | Share | Main sources of emissions | Notes | Source |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Extraction | smaller share than separation (no published split) | – | open-pit mining and flotation; for clays, in-situ leaching with ammonium salts | At Bayan Obo, rare earths come with iron ore, so allocation matters. | Bailey et al. 2020 |
| Refining / processing | the largest share: chemical cracking and solvent extraction | – | acid roasting, hundreds of mixer-settler stages, reagents not recycled, Chinese coal-heavy grid | Bailey et al. find solvent extraction the main GWP contributor on all three routes; ion-adsorption clays have lower GWP than bastnaesite or monazite. | Bailey et al. 2020 |
| Movement | small (indicative) | – | concentrate trucked from Myanmar to Yunnan; shipping of concentrate to Malaysia or China | Not quantified. | Indicative |
| Usage | none directly; magnets enable efficient motors and wind turbines | – | NdFeB magnets, catalysts, phosphors | Magnet motors raise EV efficiency. | Not applicable |
| Recycling / end of life | negligible: EU end-of-life recycling input rate 1% for light rare earths | – | magnet recycling from hard drives and motors, still small | US support in 2025 included an $80 million loan to an Indiana recycler. | EU CRM 2023; USGS MCS 2026 |
Other environmental impacts
Bayan Obo route has the largest radioactive (thorium) emissions per kg; solvent extraction sends heavy metals to wastewater; ion-clay leaching causes ammonia and eutrophication damage and landslides in south China and Myanmar (Bailey et al. 2020).
Levers to cut emissions
- Recycle extraction reagents and treat wastewater at separation plants
- Renewable power for separation and metal-making
- Closed-loop clay leaching or heap leaching in place of in-situ leaching
- Magnet recycling as EV and wind volumes reach end of life
India
IREL produces rare earths from monazite in beach sands (India 2,900 t REO in 2025, USGS) and makes samarium-cobalt magnets at Visakhapatnam. The new magnet scheme will add 6,000 tpa of sintered magnet capacity, mostly using imported oxides.
Emission figures are indicative global averages from the life-cycle studies named; actual footprints vary widely by site, energy mix and method.