Rice: Emissions

Why flooded paddies release so much methane

What this tab covers The greenhouse-gas footprint of the commodity at a global level, split by lifecycle phase: extraction (or farming), refining and processing, movement, usage, and recycling or end of life. Intensities are per unit of product; the global total combines intensity with world output. Also covers other environmental impacts and the main levers to cut emissions. Emission intensity 4.45 t CO2e per t range about 2 (top-down field average) to 4.5 (Poore & Nemecek mean) · cradle-to-retail global mean, GWP100 Global emissions per year 1,100 Mt CO2e per year 2011-2020 average · published total for paddy-field emissions (mostly methane, plus N2O); excludes milling and transport

Per kg (or t) of milled rice at retail; cradle-to-retail, excluding cooking. Intensity: Poore & Nemecek 2018 (Science), via Our World in Data; top-down check: 1.1 Gt / 533 Mt milled, Nature Food 2026 (indicative). Global total: Nature Food meta-analysis of 1,200+ field trials, reported July 2026 (The Hindu; Vajiram & Ravi summary).

Share of footprint by lifecycle phase

Extraction 88% Refining / processing 6% Movement 6%

Footprint by lifecycle phase

Phase	Intensity	Share	Main sources of emissions	Notes	Source
Extraction	about 3.9 t CO2e/t milled rice	88%	methane from flooded paddies (anaerobic decay of organic matter), N2O from fertiliser, diesel and pumping for irrigation	paddy field emissions have risen sharply since 1961-1980 and are projected to rise about 25% more by 2031-2050	Poore & Nemecek 2018 (Science), via Our World in Data (indicative); Nature Food meta-analysis of 1,200+ field trials, reported July 2026 (The Hindu; Vajiram & Ravi summary)
Refining / processing	about 0.25 t CO2e/t (milling, parboiling, packaging)	6%	electricity for hulling and polishing; steam for parboiling, often from husk	husk-fired boilers keep milling emissions low	Poore & Nemecek 2018 (Science), via Our World in Data (indicative); share approximate
Movement	about 0.25 t CO2e/t (transport and retail)	6%	truck and rail to mills and ports; bagged bulk and container shipping	only about 11% of rice crosses borders, so shipping is small	Poore & Nemecek 2018 (Science), via Our World in Data (indicative); share approximate
Usage	not in the boundary	–	cooking energy (LPG, firewood, electricity) and food waste at home	cooking can add materially where firewood is used, but no global figure is in the sources used	not quantified
Recycling / end of life	not applicable as recycling; by-products displace other inputs	–	husk (about a fifth of paddy weight) burned for steam; bran pressed for rice bran oil; broken rice to ethanol	open burning of straw in north India adds CO2, black carbon and air pollution outside this boundary	FCI; content of this tile

Other environmental impacts

Rice is the largest crop source of methane. It uses large volumes of irrigation water, and falling water tables in Punjab and Haryana are a direct result. Stubble burning in north India each October-November is a major air-quality problem.

Levers to cut emissions

Alternate wetting and drying (AWD) cuts methane by roughly 30-50% with little yield loss (IRRI, indicative)
Direct-seeded rice avoids weeks of flooding and puddling, cutting methane and water use (IRRI, indicative)
Combined field measures could cut global rice GHG emissions by about 10% by mid-century (Nature Food 2026)
Straw incorporation or baling instead of burning, and lower-methane varieties
Shorter-duration varieties and better nitrogen timing to cut N2O

India

India's irrigated paddies emit about 3.9 Mt of methane a year, slightly more than all of Germany's methane, or roughly 105 Mt CO2e at a GWP100 of 27 (Nature Food 2026, reported July 2026; conversion uses IPCC AR6). Free power for tubewells in Punjab adds pumping emissions and groundwater depletion.

Emission figures are indicative global averages from the life-cycle studies named; actual footprints vary widely by site, energy mix and method.