Healthcare services: Chokepoints and risks

Hospitals, clinics, laboratories and pharmacies that diagnose, treat and care for patients

Out-of-pocket payments exceed 40% of health spending in low-income countries and about 2 billion people face financial hardship from health costs².
India's government health spending fell to 1.48% of GDP in 2022-23, and the household out-of-pocket share rose back to 43.4% of the bill³.
Clinician shortages: doctors and nurses take roughly 5 to 10 years to train (estimate), so capacity cannot respond quickly to demand.
High-end imaging equipment and many drug inputs are imported, so currency moves and supply disruptions feed straight into hospital costs.
Payment delays and fixed tariffs in public schemes squeeze hospital margins; AB-PMJAY alone has funded ₹2.03 lakh crore of admissions⁴.