Hydrogen and hydrogen carriers: Technology advances
Converted gas pipes, giant liquid hydrogen ships and import terminals
What this tab covers The newest technologies in service or close to adoption, what each improves, and how the main options compare.Large hydrogen networks are moving from plans to steel in Germany and China, liquid hydrogen ships are scaling up 30-fold, and ammonia is the leading carrier for trade.
Latest advances
German hydrogen core network being deployed · 2025 to 20329,040 km network, about 60% converted gas pipelines, built in stages9
Improves: Shows repurposing at national scale
Long-distance repurposed pipeline (Germany) in service · Started 2025, completed by 2026400 km section of natural gas pipeline converted to hydrogen12
Improves: Longest gas-to-hydrogen conversion so far
Northern China trunk network being deployed · 2025Over 1,000 km trunk line, planned 1.6 Mt per year10
Improves: Links inland renewable hydrogen to industry
40,000 cubic metre liquid hydrogen carrier being deployed · 2026 order, demonstration FY2030Kawasaki ship with improved tank insulation, boil-off used as fuel7
Improves: 32 times the cargo of Suiso Frontier
Composite tube trailers in service · 2026Carbon-fibre cylinders replacing steel tubes4
Improves: Carry about 1.5 to 2.4 times the hydrogen of a 380 kg steel trailer (calculated)
Commercial liquid hydrogen import terminal (Japan) being deployed · Under construction 2026Receiving terminal at Ogishima, Kawasaki City17
Improves: First commercial-scale liquid hydrogen import terminal
Comparing the options
| Option | Efficiency | Cost | Capacity or distance | Maturity |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| New hydrogen pipeline31119 | Compressor energy only (under 0.5% per 1,000 km); no conversion | EUR 0.11 to 0.21 per kg per 1,000 km (European backbone estimate, 2021) | Cheapest option up to about 3,000 km | mature |
| Repurposed gas pipeline3 | As new pipeline | 65 to 94% lower investment than new | Cheapest up to about 8,000 km | being deployed |
| Tube trailer420 | Compression energy; no conversion | USD 8.2 to 9.5 per kg for delivery plus dispensing at US stations (2016 dollars) | 380 to 900 kg per load, short distances | mature |
| Liquid hydrogen ship137 | 30 to 36% lost to liquefaction, plus boil-off | At least USD 2 per kg for pure hydrogen shipping | 1,250 m3 today; 40,000 m3 ordered | demonstration |
| Ammonia ship13 | Almost 50% round trip if cracked back | Chain USD 2.5 to 4.5 per kg at 10,000 km (2030) | Large existing fleet and 170 terminals | mature (cracking at demonstration) |
| LOHC ship3 | 25 to 35% for dehydrogenation | Chain USD 2.5 to 4.5 per kg at 10,000 km (2030) | Units run only at 1.5 to 5 t per day | demonstration |
Over land, pipelines win once flows are large: IRENA finds them cheapest up to about 3,000 km when new and 8,000 km when repurposed. By sea, ammonia is favoured because ships and terminals already exist, though cracking it back to pure hydrogen is still being proven. Liquid hydrogen keeps the molecule pure but carries the heaviest energy penalty, and LOHCs are easy to handle but their release units are tiny. Tube trailers remain the default for small, local deliveries.
Sources
- Global Hydrogen Review 2026: Trade and infrastructure IEA, 2026
- Global Hydrogen Review 2025: Trade and infrastructure IEA, 2025
- Global hydrogen trade to meet the 1.5C climate goal: Part II, Technology review of hydrogen carriers IRENA, 2022
- Hydrogen Tube Trailers (first published 2015, updated June 2026) US Department of Energy, 2026
- Kawasaki Heavy Industries to build world's largest 40,000 m3 liquefied hydrogen carrier H2 Tech, 2026
- Bundesnetzagentur approves hydrogen core network Bundesnetzagentur, 2024
- World's longest: construction begins on USD 1.9bn, 1,000km-plus hydrogen pipeline network in northern China Hydrogen Insight, 2025
- Extending the European Hydrogen Backbone (Jens, Wang, van der Leun, Peters and Buseman, with Guidehouse) European Hydrogen Backbone initiative, 2021
- Compression and hydrogen transport: a technical and economic analysis (Fleer, Sciancalepore, Spreckelsen and Verbuecheln, Open Grid Europe, TransHyDE flagship project) TransHyDE / German Federal Ministry of Research hydrogen flagship projects, 2025
- Hydrogen Delivery and Dispensing Cost (DOE Hydrogen Program Record 20007) US Department of Energy Hydrogen Program, 2020