Low-carbon hydrogen and e-fuels: Emissions
How clean green hydrogen really is, from panel to tank
What this tab covers The greenhouse-gas footprint per tonne, split by lifecycle phase (feedstock, production, movement, use, end of life), the global total, other environmental impacts, levers and low-carbon routes, India's position, and where the investment opportunity lies. Emission intensity 1.50 t CO2e per t H2 range under 1 (renewable electrolysis) to about 4 (blue with low capture or high methane leakage) · indicative mix of green (about 0.5-1) and blue (about 1-4); compares with about 12 t for the grey world average Global emissions per year 1.50 Mt CO2e per year 2025 · about 1.5 t x about 1 Mt low-emissions hydrogen; avoids about 10 Mt versus greyPer t of hydrogen (or hydrogen equivalent in derivatives), well-to-gate. Intensity: hydrogen tile (IEA GHR series, indicative). Global total: derived (indicative).
Share of footprint by lifecycle phase
Feedstock 47% Production / process 40% Movement 13%Footprint by lifecycle phase
| Phase | Intensity | Share | Main sources of emissions | Notes | Source |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Feedstock | about 0.7 t CO2e per t H2 | 47% | embodied emissions of solar, wind and electrolysers; upstream gas and methane leakage for blue | Indicative | Indicative |
| Production / process | about 0.6 t CO2e per t H2 | 40% | residual uncaptured CO2 for blue; grid top-up power for green | Grid power at India's average intensity would exceed the 2 kg/kg standard | Indicative |
| Movement | about 0.2 t CO2e per t H2 | 13% | conversion to ammonia or methanol, shipping, cracking back to hydrogen | Conversion losses can be 10-30% of energy (indicative) | Indicative |
| Use | zero for hydrogen; e-fuels re-release captured CO2 when burned | – | ammonia combustion can emit N2O and NOx; hydrogen leaks have an indirect warming effect | Net benefit of e-fuels depends on the CO2 source being biogenic or air-captured | Indicative |
| End of life | not applicable | – | fuels are consumed | Electrolyser stacks and catalysts can be recycled | Not applicable |
Other environmental impacts
Water use of 9-15 t per t H2 in dry regions; land for renewables; ammonia toxicity; iridium supply.
Levers to cut emissions
- Cheaper electrolysers (Chinese stacks at $600-1,200/kW vs $2,000-2,600/kW)
- Hybrid solar-wind with storage for over 50% utilisation
- Low-cost capital and long-term offtake
- Use near the point of production to avoid conversion losses
- Biogenic CO2 for e-methanol and e-SAF
India
Replacing India's roughly 6 Mt of grey hydrogen would avoid about 60-70 Mt CO2 a year (hydrogen tile, indicative). Green hydrogen made on grid power would not meet India's 2 kg CO2e/kg standard, so projects rely on dedicated renewables.
Emission figures are indicative global averages from the life-cycle studies named; actual footprints vary widely by site, energy mix and method.Low-carbon routes
| Route | Intensity | Cost premium | Status | Source |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Green hydrogen for refineries | under 1-2 t CO2e per t H2 | about $2.4/kg over grey in India (2025) | IOCL Panipat 10 kt; L&T Green 90 kt under SIGHT | hydrogen tile |
| Green ammonia | under 0.5 t CO2e per t NH3 | about 10-45% over grey (2025) | SECI 724 kt/yr; NEOM about 1.2 Mt/yr (indicative) | ammonia tile |
| E-methanol | near zero with biogenic CO2 | about $800-1,600/t vs $100-250/t fossil | Kassø about 42 kt (2025) | methanol tile |
| E-SAF | about 70-90% below fossil jet (indicative) | EUR 4,000-9,000+/t vs roughly $700-900/t fossil jet (indicative) | over 2 Mt/yr in development in Europe, none at FID (2026) | PwC Strategy& (Jul 2026) |