Low-carbon hydrogen and e-fuels: Production route
From electrons to ammonia: how green fuels are built
What this tab covers How it is made: the main production routes or, for product families, the main product types and technologies, compared on share of supply, inputs per tonne, plant scale, yield, co-products and unit cost.Low-carbon hydrogen comes from electrolysis on renewable or nuclear power, or from gas reforming with carbon capture. Its derivatives add a synthesis step: Haber-Bosch for ammonia, CO2 hydrogenation for methanol, and Fischer-Tropsch or methanol-to-jet for synthetic kerosene. Each step loses energy, so e-fuels need roughly two to three times more electricity per unit of energy delivered than direct electrification (indicative). Costs are dominated by power price and electrolyser use, plus the CO2 source for carbon-based e-fuels.
Routes compared
| Route | Share of supply | Inputs per tonne | Typical scale | Yield | Co-products | Unit cost |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Green hydrogen (alkaline, PEM and solid-oxide electrolysis) | under 1% of all hydrogen; about 2 GW installed by 2024 | about 50-55 MWh electricity and 9-15 t water per t H2 | 100 MW-2.2 GW projects; NEOM about 2.2 GW | about 60-70% LHV efficiency | 8 t oxygen per t H2 | India tenders $4.4-4.6/kg (2025), about $2.4/kg above grey; electrolysers $2,000-2,600/kW outside China, $600-1,200/kW in China (IEA 2024) |
| Blue hydrogen (ATR or SMR with CCS) | under 1% of all hydrogen | as SMR (about 0.16 MMBtu gas per kg) plus capture power | about 1 Mt/yr ammonia-scale, e.g. CF/JERA/Mitsui Blue Point, Louisiana | slightly below unabated SMR | captured CO2 for storage | about $0.5-1/kg above grey (indicative) |
| Green ammonia | small; SECI contracted 724 kt a year (2025); NEOM about 1.2 Mt a year planned (indicative) | 0.178 t H2 (about 9-10 MWh) plus about 0.5 MWh for synthesis and air separation (indicative) | 50-1,200 kt/yr | near stoichiometric | oxygen from electrolysis | Rs 49.75-64.74/kg in India's 2025 auction |
| E-methanol (CO2 hydrogenation) | tens of kt worldwide | about 0.19 t H2 (about 10 MWh) and 1.37 t CO2 per t methanol (stoichiometry) | Kassø about 42 kt/yr | near stoichiometric with recycle | water | about $800-1,600/t vs $100-250/t fossil production cost (IRENA 2021) |
| E-SAF (Fischer-Tropsch or methanol-to-jet) | near zero commercially; over 2 Mt a year in development in Europe, none at FID (2026) | at least about 0.43 t H2 and 3.1 t CO2 per t of hydrocarbon (stoichiometry), roughly 25-35 MWh per t of jet fuel (indicative) | 80-250 kt/yr plants (PwC Strategy&) | about 60-70% to jet range (indicative) | e-diesel, e-naphtha | EUR 4,000-9,000+ per t in Europe; China 25-50% lower (PwC Strategy&, Jul 2026) |
How each route works
Green hydrogen (alkaline, PEM and solid-oxide electrolysis)Renewable electricity splits water. Alkaline stacks are cheapest; PEM handles variable solar and wind better; solid oxide uses waste heat. Cost depends on power price, capacity factor and stack cost.
Near-zero emissions with clean power; high cost, needs firm renewable supply.
hydrogen tile (IEA GHR 2025; JMK Research 2025) Blue hydrogen (ATR or SMR with CCS)Autothermal reforming of gas with capture of the concentrated CO2 stream and storage underground. Upstream methane leakage sets the real footprint.
Cheapest low-carbon route where gas and storage exist; residual and upstream emissions remain.
hydrogen tile (CF Industries 2025; indicative cost) Green ammoniaElectrolytic hydrogen is combined with nitrogen from air separation in a Haber-Bosch loop; storage buffers variable power. Ammonia is the easiest hydrogen carrier to ship.
Existing market and logistics; toxic, and burning it can emit N2O and NOx.
ammonia tile (SECI via ESMAP 2025); stoichiometry E-methanol (CO2 hydrogenation)Captured CO2 (ideally biogenic or from direct air capture) reacts with green hydrogen over copper-zinc catalysts. European Energy's Kassø plant in Denmark (about 42 kt a year) started in May 2025.
Liquid, easy to ship and use in dual-fuel engines; needs a cheap, credible CO2 source.
methanol tile (Argus 2025; IRENA 2021) E-SAF (Fischer-Tropsch or methanol-to-jet)CO2 and green hydrogen are made into syngas (reverse water-gas shift) and Fischer-Tropsch liquids, or into methanol that is upgraded to jet fuel. Output is blended with fossil kerosene.
Drop-in aviation fuel without biomass limits; highest cost, green hydrogen up to 60% of it.
PwC Strategy& (Jul 2026); stoichiometry Unit economics are indicative ranges from the sources named; costs move with feedstock and energy prices, plant size and region.